Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Analysis of UK and Pakistan Education System Essay

UK is one of the renowned trading power and financial hub of the world, stands at third position in European Union following Germany and France. The agriculture sector of the region is particularly strong and mechanized. Its efficiency can be ensured through the production of 60 percent food needs with only 2 percent of workforce. The region has significant energy resource but due to increasing demands it is importing energy from 2005. The insurance and financial institutes in addition to bank are generating the largest portion of GDP of the region. The recent financial crises particularly influenced the economy of the region during 2008 because of the financial sector of the region (www. cia. gov). Literacy rate of the region is 99 percent while 5. 5 percent of GDP is fixed for the development of education sector. According to such percentage of GDP it stands at 44th position as compare to other countries (www. cia. gov). There were 89 universities and 131 higher education institutes operating till August 2011 (www. universitiesuk. ac. uk). The expansion in higher education system of the region is relatively slow as compared to the other countries competing with the region according to the report of Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2007). There are several countries coming up with significantly higher number of college and universities although the growth of education sector in recent years in UK is also remarkable. The increase in the educational institutes positively influence the graduation rate in UK as it was 37 percent during the year 2000 and reached upto 39 percent in 2005. On the other hand the position of the region was dropped from 3rd to 10th position as compare to around 20 countries while considering the educational performance (www. guardian. co. uk). The recent financial crises negatively influenced all the sectors therefore the government was planning to reduce the educational expenses by 25 percent during the upcoming four years. It was mentioned the chancellor that the reduction in the budget for educational sector depends on the treatment with the other sectors which are influencing the budget of the region. No guarantee of not cutting the educational budget was given by the chancellor. It was further mentioned by the government official that the possible saving through reduction in welfare budget may positively facilitate in reducing percentage of cut in educational budget (BBC, 2010). UK is also famous as an esteem education provided all around the world and students of different continents are presently completing their education in UK. Recently the government particularly focus the immigration process of students for making amendments. The seniors of UK education sector that the shift of government towards Tier 4 student immigration program may adversely effect the higher education institutes and the whole economy. The government particularly deployed for deciding about the student visa system of UK according to the new rules and policies. In addition the numbers of immigration given to the skilled workers also threatened the education sector because the student which will not take higher education may reduce the scope of universities and it will be quite difficult for the region to compete with the other countries as far as the educational sector is concerned (www. orkpermit. com). Pakistan is facing severe law and order situation in addition to political disputes which negatively influencing the trend of foreign investment. The recent energy crises are also one of the factors which badly effecting the overall development of economy. The unemployment rate according to the government is 6 percent but the real rate is very high because of the slow economic development. During the recent years the growth of the country significantly reduced while the inflation rate is particularly increasing. On the other hand food prices have also remarkable increased. The UN Human Development Report estimated the poverty during 2011 around 50 percent population. The inflation rate was recorded at 7. 7 percent during 2007 which was crossed 13 percent during the year 2011. The currency value of Pakistan has decreased by 40 percent since 2007 due to such circumstances (www. cia. gov). The education facilities in Pakistan are although developing but still require significant attention to compete with the global market. The literacy rate of the country is very low and estimated as around 50 percent in which 63 percent are males while remaining are females. The government declared 2. 7 percent of annual GDP for the education sector so that further schools can be developed and established according to the need of population. Keeping in view the expenses declared for education sector as compared to the remaining world the country is at 142nd position which is considerably low rank (www. cia. gov). Ministry for education is performing critical role for the development education sector in Pakistan. The key aim is to promote education according to the policies and plans defined by the management of the firm. Under this ministry education policy for 1998-2010 was prepared for significantly focusing the overall development educational sector within Pakistan. In this policy the education of the nation and Islamic knowledge was particularly focused for reasonable development. Literacy, non-formal, elementary, secondary and teacher education were also included. The government particularly focused vocational and technical education in addition to higher education for the students so that the need of the market can be fulfilled. The government also particularly focused the private sector which is consistently and rapidly developing within Pakistan for providing upto the mark quality education to the nation (http://www. moe. gov. pk). The higher education sector of Pakistan is facing problems due to significant reduction in the budget during the last two years (2010 and 2011). Presently the government is spending around 1. 8 percent of its GDP on education and in the world there are only six countries found which are following Pakistan. The upcoming problems for the education sector of Pakistan are further critical as the government has planned to devolve the higher education system to the provinces till 2014. It will be a huge loss to the upcoming generation as the standard of education will be decreased in addition to huge wastage of money invested for the development of the sector. The policies of the government are negatively effecting the development of education sector although there is crucial requirement of central authority which ensures the development of education sector (newsweekpakistan. com).

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

Meaning of Life and Success Essay

The most important thing in my life is thought to be happiness. In order to achieve success you must adjust to very situation with ease. Success is it the process of doing a task and receiving a positive result, or is it simply achieving one’s own personal goals. According to The American Heritage dictionary success is, â€Å"the achievement of something desired, planned, or attempt†. The word success itself means to achieve your goal or get the point that you looking for. Some people success meant to them to be rich or to finish school and work high pay jobs. But for me success means more than that. Success means to me have peace and love; also to get married and to enter heaven after this life is over. To be sure, everybody who has peace and love is a successful succeeding person. Without peace and love there is no success. You wake up in the morning and you don’t worry about anything that day; that is success for me, because the life is short, you don’t have to be concerned about anything. Also if you have a family that loves you and is always happy for what you are doing, that is success. In addition, if you take care of your old parents and they love you and they live a happy life, which is success for me. Additionally, success is also something that is viewed differently in the eyes of everyone. This is because success means doing what I have always wanted do being where I have always wanted to be. My goal in life is to eventually get married to a good wife and have many happy children and if I accomplished that, then I could view myself as having success. Lastly, meaning of success for me is to enter the heaven after this life is over. We know that life in this world is too short, and we don’t know when we are going to die and what we are going to get after this life. That is a simple answer; do good deeds in this world and you are going to be successful in the life hereafter. That means you enter the heaven for sure and that is big reward from God to his mankind. There is no dying after this life; that means if you don’t enter the heaven you will be the loser and who ever go in the heaven will be the winner. In conclusion, I still agree with the idea I presented: however according to the dictionary and many other resources, success means to them achievement. But according to my own opinion success means to believe the ones of God, and to have peace and love in your whole life, and to get in heaven the life hereafter.

Bullying in Schools

James Smith Sociology Nancy Rosen Bullying In Schools Many problems in society need public attention, bullying is one of the top problems. The problem of bullying affects everyone in some aspect whether it is by being the victim, victimizer, and both the victim and the victimizer, friend, or family member of the victim or just a bystander that does nothing to prevent this problem. When you think of bullying you might picture a young child. While bullying is most common in elementary and high schools, it is important for education programs to be aware that associated bullying behaviors begin early even into the preschool years.When one thinks of a bully, the image of a movie villain may come into their minds; this isn’t always the case. In reality, a victimizer of bullying can be male or female, small or large, young or old. Bullying has no social, financial, or cultural boundaries. Bullying is most common in middle schools, with 6th graders on the receiving end the most and 8t h graders handing out the most bullying. In a study of 15,686 students in 6th through 10th grade in private and public schools, it was found that 13-23% of boys and 4-11% of girls experience some sort of bullying. (Nansel 2003).Nearly one in six children in that age range fall victim to bullying each year, which means about 3. 2 million children, were being bullied. Whereas, 3. 7 million children are acting as bullies (Kerlikowske 2003). Six out ten children witness some form of bullying on a daily basis. In schools, bullying most likely takes place on the playground, followed by the classroom, then the hallways (Drake 2003). For the students at Dunn Middle School, a lot of the bullying occurs out of school. If it occurs in school, most students said bullying occurs in the hallways or in the lunchroom.One student even mentioned a fight that took place during an assembly, which was initiated because one student was bullying another. Although anyone can be a bully, there are many comm on characteristics found in most bullies. Most bullies are male, popular, and often athletes (Espelage 2001). They have excellent social skills, with the ability to attract many followers, and easily manipulate others (â€Å"Bullies†¦ † 2001). Bullies are psychologically strong and very popular among their peers. This peer status is important in terms of boosting their well-being. It's disturbing to think that bullies are feeling really good about themselves.Bullying behavior is self-reinforcing: When kids find that putting others down earns them approval from their peers, they are likely to do it again and again. Many times they can easily butter up to adults, making them unsuspecting bullies (Espelage 2001). In general, a bully is someone who teases and intimidates other students, although there are many other ways to bully a fellow student. Many people feel the typical bully comes from a broken home, but this is not necessarily true. Yet, the less supervision a child gets at home, the more likely he is to be a bully.About 30 to 40% of bullies show some levels of depression, and their bullying is often a cry for help. (Espelage 2001). I asked my little brother what he thought caused students to bully one another and I was impressed with his response. He felt bullies exist because they probably can’t get their way at home. Many of the other students felt very similarly. One student even thought that maybe bullies were bullied as little kids, which turned them into bullies themselves. Most bullies look for a victim to be smaller, younger, and weaker. Most likely the victim will be both less confident and popular. â€Å"Bullies†¦ † 2001). Many victims react by becoming upset or crying as a way of dealing with their anger and fear. Victims have a tendency to be depressed, anxious, shy and lonely (Drake 2003). Luckily, as they grow older, victims are less likely to stay a victim because they learn to cope, while the bullies tend to remain that way (Drake 2003). Tonja Narsel, a psychologist at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, says that from previous research victims tend to have a lower self-esteem and have a higher level of depression (Rubin 2003).When people think of bullying they will most likely think of a boy getting shoved into a locker by older boys or getting pushed as they walk through the hallways. While this is the most common form of bullying, especially with males, many girls experience a different form of bullying. Although it is a more indirect form of bullying, social manipulation is very prevalent within females. Social manipulation can include many actions, including spreading gossip, telling lies, betraying trust, passing notes, ignoring the victim, or excluding the victim (Bullies 2001).Many of the girls said there was a lot of bullying between girls. They said many girls would get bullied if they get a lot of attention from the boys. It seemed as if the girls wo uld get jealous, and then in turn make that girl the object of their bullying. They said the bullying most often consisted of calling names, pulling hair, and occasionally fighting. There are many repercussions from bullying that are quite shocking: 1) Children who are bullied are more likely to be depressed – 26% of girls who were frequently bullied reported depression as opposed to 8% of girls who were not; the boys were 16% vs. %; 2) Victims are more likely to be suicidal, with 8% for girls and 4% for boys, compared to 1% overall for non-victims of bullying; 3) Bullies are more likely to carry weapons, with 43% carrying a weapon to school at least once a week, compared to 8%. 4) Bullies are more likely to be injured, 46% vs. 16%. (Kerlikowske 2003). The topic of bullying entered the spotlight due to the numerous school shootings. In two-thirds of the 37 school shooting that were examined, the shooters felt persecuted, bullied, threatened, attacked or injured by others prio r to the incident (Drake 2003).It is very important for teachers to be involved and to keep their eyes out for bullies to help keep the incidence of bullying at a low. All future teachers need to acknowledge the need for anti-bullying programs, which can significantly reduce the occurrence of bullying. Bullying prevention programs are interventions for the reduction and prevention of bully/victim problems. The program targets students in elementary, middle, and junior high schools. All students within a school participate in most aspects of the program. Additional individual interventions are targeted at students who are identified as bullies or victims of bullying.The core components of the program are implemented at the school, class and the individual level. To make sure this program is a success the staff and students must work together cooperatively. For a safe classroom environment against bullying, there must be the establishment and enforcement of class rules against bullyin g. Teachers need to teach and develop good interpersonal skills and values with the children. The students also need to be taught non-violent values, non-racist values, conflict resolution, and problem solving skills.If a child in a class is identified as a bully there needs to be interventions and discussions with parents. The school must do its part to ensure effective communication between itself and parents. Parents need to be informed of any bullying incidents right away. School counselors or school psychologists can assist teachers in this process. Children can be taught habits to lessen the possibility of becoming the target of a bully. If a child starts looking people in the eye, speaking up and standing up straight they can begin to develop self-confidence.Kids need help developing strategies to deal with the intimidating behavior of their peers, like walking away or telling the bully to stop, but they also need to know that adults can and will come to their aid. A teacher' s openness about bullying can give them that assurance (Feldman, 2004). Unfortunately, most of the students at Dunn Middle School felt fighting back was the best solution. One student mentioned going to an adult for help, but another student quickly responded, you snitch, you’ll get beat up worse. One student offered the solution of fighting back and got a weapon.I feel that there has to be a strict punishment for the bullies so the victims can be reassured that the bully won’t continue such behavior. Cyber bulling is another form of teen violence that can do lasting harm to young people. Statistics show that cyber bullying is a serious problem among young teens. This problems comes in many forms, such as sending mean messages through email or through text messaging, posting harmful or threatening messages on social networks i. e. Facebook or twitter or pretending to be someone else online to hurt another person. The behavior of bystanders who see bullying happen is to o often overlooked or excused.Bystanders provide bullies with an audience and sometimes even encouragement. When witnesses do nothing to stop abusive behavior, they also give their implicit approval. It should be made very clear to students that failing to stop or report an act of bullying makes them responsible and they too can get into trouble. Yet, it is very difficult to speak up against the bully. Many of the students don’t want to get involved because they don’t want to be the next victim. Yet again, I feel that strict punishment needs to be enacted for such bullies so the other students can have a sense of security.If anti-bullying programs are implemented the right way, results can be amazing. Many programs that are used in schools nationwide have had these results with their interventions: 1. A substantial reduction in boys and girls reports of bullying and victimization. 2. A significant reduction in student’s actions such as vandalism, fighting, theft and truancy. 3. Significant improvements in the aspect of the class, such as students reports of improved order and discipline, more positive social relationships, and a more positive attitude toward schoolwork and school (Svoboda, 2004).Preventing bullying is just one important aspect of maintaining good discipline in school environments. Children who feel secure want to go to school, enjoy school, and therefore learn more. Teachers who are in classrooms that are safe, orderly, and free of bullies can accomplish many things. All children can benefit from lessons about treating each other with respect. Bullying is one childhood memory no youngster should have.Works Cited Bullies and their Victims. Harvard Mental Health Letter. 2001, 4-7. Drake, J. Teacher preparation and practices regarding school bullying. Journal of School Health. 2003, 347-356. Espelage, D. Schoolroom torment. People. 2/05/2001, 91-92. Feldman, S. Bullying prevention. Teaching PreK-8. 2004, 6. Kerlikowske, G. On e in six students fall prey to bullies. Inside School Safety. 2003,6-9. Nansel, T. Bullies found to be at risk for violent behavior. Inside School Safety. 2003, 1-4. Rubin, R. Study: Bullies and their victims ten to be more violent. USA Today. 4/15/03 Svoboda, E. Everyone loves a bully. Psychology Today. 2004, 1-20. Bullying in Schools James Smith Sociology Nancy Rosen Bullying In Schools Many problems in society need public attention, bullying is one of the top problems. The problem of bullying affects everyone in some aspect whether it is by being the victim, victimizer, and both the victim and the victimizer, friend, or family member of the victim or just a bystander that does nothing to prevent this problem. When you think of bullying you might picture a young child. While bullying is most common in elementary and high schools, it is important for education programs to be aware that associated bullying behaviors begin early even into the preschool years.When one thinks of a bully, the image of a movie villain may come into their minds; this isn’t always the case. In reality, a victimizer of bullying can be male or female, small or large, young or old. Bullying has no social, financial, or cultural boundaries. Bullying is most common in middle schools, with 6th graders on the receiving end the most and 8t h graders handing out the most bullying. In a study of 15,686 students in 6th through 10th grade in private and public schools, it was found that 13-23% of boys and 4-11% of girls experience some sort of bullying. (Nansel 2003).Nearly one in six children in that age range fall victim to bullying each year, which means about 3. 2 million children, were being bullied. Whereas, 3. 7 million children are acting as bullies (Kerlikowske 2003). Six out ten children witness some form of bullying on a daily basis. In schools, bullying most likely takes place on the playground, followed by the classroom, then the hallways (Drake 2003). For the students at Dunn Middle School, a lot of the bullying occurs out of school. If it occurs in school, most students said bullying occurs in the hallways or in the lunchroom.One student even mentioned a fight that took place during an assembly, which was initiated because one student was bullying another. Although anyone can be a bully, there are many comm on characteristics found in most bullies. Most bullies are male, popular, and often athletes (Espelage 2001). They have excellent social skills, with the ability to attract many followers, and easily manipulate others (â€Å"Bullies†¦ † 2001). Bullies are psychologically strong and very popular among their peers. This peer status is important in terms of boosting their well-being. It's disturbing to think that bullies are feeling really good about themselves.Bullying behavior is self-reinforcing: When kids find that putting others down earns them approval from their peers, they are likely to do it again and again. Many times they can easily butter up to adults, making them unsuspecting bullies (Espelage 2001). In general, a bully is someone who teases and intimidates other students, although there are many other ways to bully a fellow student. Many people feel the typical bully comes from a broken home, but this is not necessarily true. Yet, the less supervision a child gets at home, the more likely he is to be a bully.About 30 to 40% of bullies show some levels of depression, and their bullying is often a cry for help. (Espelage 2001). I asked my little brother what he thought caused students to bully one another and I was impressed with his response. He felt bullies exist because they probably can’t get their way at home. Many of the other students felt very similarly. One student even thought that maybe bullies were bullied as little kids, which turned them into bullies themselves. Most bullies look for a victim to be smaller, younger, and weaker. Most likely the victim will be both less confident and popular. â€Å"Bullies†¦ † 2001). Many victims react by becoming upset or crying as a way of dealing with their anger and fear. Victims have a tendency to be depressed, anxious, shy and lonely (Drake 2003). Luckily, as they grow older, victims are less likely to stay a victim because they learn to cope, while the bullies tend to remain that way (Drake 2003). Tonja Narsel, a psychologist at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, says that from previous research victims tend to have a lower self-esteem and have a higher level of depression (Rubin 2003).When people think of bullying they will most likely think of a boy getting shoved into a locker by older boys or getting pushed as they walk through the hallways. While this is the most common form of bullying, especially with males, many girls experience a different form of bullying. Although it is a more indirect form of bullying, social manipulation is very prevalent within females. Social manipulation can include many actions, including spreading gossip, telling lies, betraying trust, passing notes, ignoring the victim, or excluding the victim (Bullies 2001).Many of the girls said there was a lot of bullying between girls. They said many girls would get bullied if they get a lot of attention from the boys. It seemed as if the girls wo uld get jealous, and then in turn make that girl the object of their bullying. They said the bullying most often consisted of calling names, pulling hair, and occasionally fighting. There are many repercussions from bullying that are quite shocking: 1) Children who are bullied are more likely to be depressed – 26% of girls who were frequently bullied reported depression as opposed to 8% of girls who were not; the boys were 16% vs. %; 2) Victims are more likely to be suicidal, with 8% for girls and 4% for boys, compared to 1% overall for non-victims of bullying; 3) Bullies are more likely to carry weapons, with 43% carrying a weapon to school at least once a week, compared to 8%. 4) Bullies are more likely to be injured, 46% vs. 16%. (Kerlikowske 2003). The topic of bullying entered the spotlight due to the numerous school shootings. In two-thirds of the 37 school shooting that were examined, the shooters felt persecuted, bullied, threatened, attacked or injured by others prio r to the incident (Drake 2003).It is very important for teachers to be involved and to keep their eyes out for bullies to help keep the incidence of bullying at a low. All future teachers need to acknowledge the need for anti-bullying programs, which can significantly reduce the occurrence of bullying. Bullying prevention programs are interventions for the reduction and prevention of bully/victim problems. The program targets students in elementary, middle, and junior high schools. All students within a school participate in most aspects of the program. Additional individual interventions are targeted at students who are identified as bullies or victims of bullying.The core components of the program are implemented at the school, class and the individual level. To make sure this program is a success the staff and students must work together cooperatively. For a safe classroom environment against bullying, there must be the establishment and enforcement of class rules against bullyin g. Teachers need to teach and develop good interpersonal skills and values with the children. The students also need to be taught non-violent values, non-racist values, conflict resolution, and problem solving skills.If a child in a class is identified as a bully there needs to be interventions and discussions with parents. The school must do its part to ensure effective communication between itself and parents. Parents need to be informed of any bullying incidents right away. School counselors or school psychologists can assist teachers in this process. Children can be taught habits to lessen the possibility of becoming the target of a bully. If a child starts looking people in the eye, speaking up and standing up straight they can begin to develop self-confidence.Kids need help developing strategies to deal with the intimidating behavior of their peers, like walking away or telling the bully to stop, but they also need to know that adults can and will come to their aid. A teacher' s openness about bullying can give them that assurance (Feldman, 2004). Unfortunately, most of the students at Dunn Middle School felt fighting back was the best solution. One student mentioned going to an adult for help, but another student quickly responded, you snitch, you’ll get beat up worse. One student offered the solution of fighting back and got a weapon.I feel that there has to be a strict punishment for the bullies so the victims can be reassured that the bully won’t continue such behavior. Cyber bulling is another form of teen violence that can do lasting harm to young people. Statistics show that cyber bullying is a serious problem among young teens. This problems comes in many forms, such as sending mean messages through email or through text messaging, posting harmful or threatening messages on social networks i. e. Facebook or twitter or pretending to be someone else online to hurt another person. The behavior of bystanders who see bullying happen is to o often overlooked or excused.Bystanders provide bullies with an audience and sometimes even encouragement. When witnesses do nothing to stop abusive behavior, they also give their implicit approval. It should be made very clear to students that failing to stop or report an act of bullying makes them responsible and they too can get into trouble. Yet, it is very difficult to speak up against the bully. Many of the students don’t want to get involved because they don’t want to be the next victim. Yet again, I feel that strict punishment needs to be enacted for such bullies so the other students can have a sense of security.If anti-bullying programs are implemented the right way, results can be amazing. Many programs that are used in schools nationwide have had these results with their interventions: 1. A substantial reduction in boys and girls reports of bullying and victimization. 2. A significant reduction in student’s actions such as vandalism, fighting, theft and truancy. 3. Significant improvements in the aspect of the class, such as students reports of improved order and discipline, more positive social relationships, and a more positive attitude toward schoolwork and school (Svoboda, 2004).Preventing bullying is just one important aspect of maintaining good discipline in school environments. Children who feel secure want to go to school, enjoy school, and therefore learn more. Teachers who are in classrooms that are safe, orderly, and free of bullies can accomplish many things. All children can benefit from lessons about treating each other with respect. Bullying is one childhood memory no youngster should have.Works Cited Bullies and their Victims. Harvard Mental Health Letter. 2001, 4-7. Drake, J. Teacher preparation and practices regarding school bullying. Journal of School Health. 2003, 347-356. Espelage, D. Schoolroom torment. People. 2/05/2001, 91-92. Feldman, S. Bullying prevention. Teaching PreK-8. 2004, 6. Kerlikowske, G. On e in six students fall prey to bullies. Inside School Safety. 2003,6-9. Nansel, T. Bullies found to be at risk for violent behavior. Inside School Safety. 2003, 1-4. Rubin, R. Study: Bullies and their victims ten to be more violent. USA Today. 4/15/03 Svoboda, E. Everyone loves a bully. Psychology Today. 2004, 1-20. Bullying in Schools Bullying in schools: Bullying Paula Bergbreiter Com. 220 3/21/2010 Valerie Black Bullying and cyber-bullying have become an increasing problem in the schools Everyday there is more and more stories on the outcome of what can happen when a person becomes a victim of bullies. Suicide and violence has risen in schools because of children being bullied. Adolescent children are among the highest at risk for bullying. What are the risk factors for bullying? Is one type of person more likely to be bullied? What are the schools doing to protect children from becoming a victim? Bullying is a form of intimidation ( Baldry, 2010, Farrington, 2010 ): A bully may use force or coercion to gain what they want from a weaker person. This is their way to establish superiority over an individual. Bullying has been around for many years. Today, it has become a serious issue for children in schools and on the internet. According to ( Roberts,2010, Harlow, 2010 ) bullying was more common in children who were less physically attractive, overweight, and had disability problems such as sight, hearing, or speech deficits. There are different types of bullying verbal taunting, physical assaults and exclusion. Some signs That a teacher or parent can look for to identify a child who is a bully may be aggression towards other’s, has little empathy, easily frustrated, and views violence as a positive way to solve problems. Some signs that a child is a victim of bullying may be fear of going to school, signs of depression, withdrawn, and signs of physical altercations such as bruises, and or scrapes. According to the National Center for Education Statistics report shows that middle school and elementary school children are bullied more than high school children. According to the Table below done at a Baltimore City public school, shows the number of tudents who were bullied or know someone who is a bully. Table I Percentage of Students who are bullied daily |Students verbally assaulted daily |70% | |Students who are threatened daily |60% | |Students who know a bully |80% | |Students who are the bully |30% | Bullying has been around for as long as anyone can remember. Not only do schools need to tr y to find a way to stop bullying but, in recent years the schools are seeing an increase in cyber-bullying among adolescents. Cyber-bullying is, the modern communication technologies to embarrass, humiliate, threaten, or intimidate an individual to attempt gain power and control over them ( Stutzky, 2006 ). Cyber-bullying has become has become an increasing problem in schools today. I believe that this form of bullying is more severe and has much worse outcomes. Everyday the media writes stories of children who have become victims of cyber- bullying. In 2006 statistics showed that 75 to 80 percent of 12 to 14 year olds had been cyber bullied ( Meech, 2008 ). Because of the use of modern technology this type of bullying can be one without being face to face. The use of computers today by children to cyber-bully makes it harder for authorities to pinpoint who is posting negative messages toward another person. A person who bullies on-line can send text messages, and photos. Cyber-bulling can spread through the internet fast and damage a persons reputation. Most times children who are being cyber-bullied do no t report it to their parents or an adult. Children are taught that home is where you feel safe, when an individual is being cyber-bullied they don’t have that feeling of safety. Parents need to look for signs if they feel their child is being cyber-bullied. Some signs may be depression, becoming withdrawn, a decline in school activities, and how they may view themselves. One of the big problems that authorities have with cyber-bullying is, a bully can use the help of another person to do the bullying for them. This is called cyber-bullying by proxy. When this happens it makes it harder to identify the real bully. The different forms of cyber-bullying can range from embarrassing rumors to threats, harassment, or stalking. Young adults and tenagers are among the most common victims. In the schools today computer technology is part of a child’s curriculum. Some schools are implementing a internet usage contract ( waiver), this contract or waiver will make the schools exempt from liability. students will be liable for what they do on-line. If schools are using these types of contracts they are not addressing the problem of cyber-bullying. If the issue of cyber-bullying is not addressed children will make the decision to take matters into their own hands. When this happens children think that revenge is their only option to protect themselves. Revenge can then urn into violence. This is when children start bringing guns and other types of weapons into school. Studies show that each day 100,00 students carry a gun to school ( American Justice Department). The impact that bullying can have children in schools is overwhelming. Some of the children that are bullied will develop mental and emotional problems, which they will carry into adulthood. Some children wi ll become violent towards their peers. In most severe of cases children or youths begin to feel like the only way to protect themselves is to threaten the bully with a gun or weapon. This can lead to shootings in schools or off of school property. At times when this happens the victim will take their own life. It can also lead to suicide. The suicide rate among adolescent children has gone up in recent years along with cyber-bullying. There have several reported cases of suicide in the last few years among teenage children due to cyber-bullying. The first steps that parents and teachers need to take when trying to stop a bully is to make sure to intervene when they see a child bullying another child. Watch for signs that a child is being bullied, or signs that the child is a bully. Most schools have a zero tolerance for bullying but, there needs to be more interventions put in place for children who are victims to feel safe at school. Parents need to talk to their children on a daily basis about what goes on at school. If a parent talks to their children on a regular basis they may know if something is wrong. I believe that bullying is something that is learned from an early age. Children who are subjected to violent situations daily it will show in the childs behavior. The child may not be the bully but aides the bully. All children in school need to be aware that bullying an happen to anyone and if they are a victim they should report it. Teachers and parents need to inform children that if they bully someone that they will have consequences. Children also need to be told that it’s not their fault, they did nothing wrong and that no child deserves to be bullied. My son was a victim of bullying in 4th. Grade, he reported it to the principle like we had taught him. It stopped for a while and then it started again, he reported again to the principle but, this time it didn’t stop. As parents we felt it was time to step in and try to find a way to intervene with the bully. The school informed us that they would address the situation and let us know what the outcome was. After some time we started to notice changes in our son, he was withdrawn, didn’t want to go to school, and his grades were dropping. The was notified and we set up a meeting with the principle. At the meeting we were told that our son needed to grow thicker skin because this is something that happens in school everyday. As parents we were shocked to be told this by people we trusted to keep our son safe. We removed him from the school and put him into a private school. His grades improved soon after e started he wasn’t withdrawn anymore and he wanted to go to school. My hope is that no child has to go through what our son went through. In conclusion, bullying in schools has become an increasing problem. It is our job as teachers and parents to make sure that our children feel safe at school. If children do not feel that the environment they are in is safe then, they will find ways to protect themselves. When this happens violence can occur. Teachers and parents are working to try to find a solution to stop children from being victims of bullying. As parents we should also work with our schools to elp find the solution. In the end the person that we are helping is our child. References: Farrington, D. P. & Baldry, A. C. (Jan. 2010). Individual risk factors for school bullying: Journal of Aggression, Conflict, and Peace Research. 2(1) 4-16. Ford, A. , (July 2009). Journal of Law & Education: School Liability: Holding Middle schools liable for Cyber-bullying despite their implementations of the Internet Usage Contracts. 38(3) 535-543 Harlow, Kirk C. , and Roberts, Roe ( Jan. 2010). An exploration of the relationship between Social and Psychological Factors and Being Bullied: Children & Schools; 32(1), 15-26. 2p. Hymel, Shelley and Swearer, Susan. Bullying Special Edition Contributor, education. com: Bullying: An Age Old Problem That Needs New Solutions . 1-6 Meech, Scott. (August 2008), Tech & Learning: Cyber Bullying: Worse Than Traditional Bullying, article7284 Stutzky,Glen. M. S. W, Clinical Instructor, ( 2006), School of Social Work, MSU, Cyber_bullying_information, 3p. Unnever, J. & Cornell, D. (2003). School of Education, University of Virginia, The culture of bullying in middle school. Journal of School and Violence, 2, 5-27.

Monday, July 29, 2019

Analysis of Business Continuity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Analysis of Business Continuity - Assignment Example Similarly, the â€Å"what† question is with regards to which aspects of the firm or business entity/organization will be impacted upon and directed in the result of an emergency response. Further, the â€Å"how† question delves into the actual mechanics of emergency response and the means by which these will be carried out. Additionally, the â€Å"where† question refers to the actual physical location in which emergency response and business continuity operations will be affected. By engaging each of these respective considerations, firms are universally able to engage in emergency response preparation and planning as a function of effecting business continuity in the face of a disaster or emergency of some size. Although the preceding list is not an exhaustive discussion of the way in which a business or organization should affect the responsibility, it helps to give a brief overview of some of the key considerations that must be made prior to any business conti nuity operations being delineated. Similarly, the second phase of business continuity is necessarily crisis management. It is at this particular stage that many firms and organizations have evidenced a distinct weakness. Whereas it is relatively obvious that emergency response should be considered and engaged within the firm, the actual implementation of crisis management is oftentimes ignored up until the moment in which it is required. As a function of their understanding crisis management and delineating key compliments, the following section will be concentric upon analyzing the importance of timely, organized, structured, and planned crisis management. With respect to timing, the current era has witnessed a drastic change in the way the information is disseminated; oftentimes new stories can travel the globe engage with stakeholders within a matter of  moments.

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Tourism Influences and Impacts Case Study - Malaysia Assignment

Tourism Influences and Impacts Case Study - Malaysia - Assignment Example As the tourism industry of Malaysia is the earner of huge foreign exchange, this has helped to contribute to the economic growth and development of the country and attract more foreign investments. As a result, the opportunities for jobs have also increased. Apart from promoting the domestic tourism, the government of Malaysia is highly focused on strengthening the position of the country as a leading tourist destination of the world. In order to support the growth of the tourism sector of Malaysia, many investors, business owners and entrepreneurs are identified to make huge investment in different areas for the development of the tourism sector as a whole. The Ministry of tourism is responsible for developing the tourism industry of Malaysia. Whereas, Malaysia Tourism Centre, Virtual Malaysia and Tourism Malaysia are responsible in promoting the diversification of the services of Malaysia’s tourism both nationally and internationally. The increase in the tourism activities i n Malaysia has resulted in the growth of various sectors like hotel industry, restaurants, transportation and retail business. The tourism industry in Malaysia is playing a major role in the growth and development of Malaysia (Scribd Inc, 2014; The Establishment Post, 2014; TourismNews.org, 2014; Othman & et. al., 2012; Tourism Malaysia, 2008). The tourism industry is a major contributor to the Malaysian economy and thus, helps in the economic growth and development of Malaysia. Huge amount of foreign exchange is earned by the tourism industry, which has created new investment opportunities in the country as well as in generating more employment opportunities. A campaigning strategy was adopted by the Malaysia tourism board named as, ‘Malaysia Truly Asia’ in the year 1991. As a result of this campaigning, about eight million tourists visited Malaysia from various parts of the world and the revenue from this was nearly RM 12.3

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Influences on comprehension, fluency, and word recognition Essay

Influences on comprehension, fluency, and word recognition - Essay Example Rather, it is a thinking process, where the reader thinks about what the symbols, signs and the words mean (p.99). To further contextualize the definition, the authors cited explanation from other sources that underscore how the reading comprehension reduces uncertainty and builds the bridge between the new and the known (p.99). The RAND Corporation also developed a similar definition, that which considers reading comprehension as the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language (Sweet and Snow 2003, p.10). Based from these definitions, one can infer several important insights. First, reading comprehension is a big concept that encompasses word and symbol recognition, the level of reading fluency and the ability to understand and think about the texts being read. Consequently, this paper will refer to reading comprehension as inclusive of cognition, fluency and word recognition. In addition, the framework also reveals that it is a construct resulting from social and/or cultural processes. The understanding required for the symbols and texts entails the influences of the environment, not unlike how children acquire cognitive abilities and behaviors. These points are important because they underpin the position that technology, motivation and instruction are crucial in developing reading comprehension ability. A study undertaken by Lietz (1996) measured the reading comprehension skills of students across six countries. There were at least four variables identified as major influences in a learner’s reading comprehension: gender, the education of the parents, the education of the learner, and the number of books and resources available (p.398). This study corroborates the position that reading comprehension is affected by environmental factors. For example, the education of the parents implies numerous dimensions. First, there is the level of awareness regarding the learner’s cognitive development. A higher educational attainment would mean a better understanding of the psychology of the learner. It could also be influence the perspective of the parents on education, academic performance and reading. Based from such perspective, the availability or unavailability of resources – which was also an identified variable - such as books, computer, the Internet, among others are determined. The body of literature on this subject echoes this theme. Alcantara et al. (2003), found that the attitudes of the parents, siblings and peers as well as the home background (i.e. whether the learner is read to or provided with sufficient reading materials) are crucial in the acquisition of reading comprehension ability (p.89). What these studies highlight is the fact that reading comprehension is a skill that is learned through a complex process, involving many factors. Student Motivation The student motivation is easily the most important variable that influences re ading comprehension or the acquisition of the ability. As has been mentioned earlier, reading comprehension is a cognitive process. This prompted Paris and Stahl (2005) to conclude that motivational processes are integral to it. It was argued that, generally, motivation, along other constructs, is behind comprehension, which for its part is considered as a psychological phenomenon (p.29). They demonstrated the dynamics of

Friday, July 26, 2019

Company report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Company report - Research Paper Example One of those companies is Facebook. This is a company that was conceived in a Harvard dorm room but whose services are available almost everywhere and therefore we affects the lives of multiple people. The founder was a young student, Mark Zuckerberg. Facebook today has become the industry leader along Twitter and other companies. They are more commonly referred to as social media. Their power seems to have no bounds too. Its initial aims were to connect multiple numbers of people over the internet. Those aims have largely been fulfilled today since Facebook has around a billion users around the world. Such a huge number undoubtedly poses huge potential for the company. The company recently became a publicly listed company amidst tension that such a move was bound to fail. The critics say that Facebook has to explore alternative revenue streams like advertising, precisely the sort of thing the users abhor. This leaves the company in a sort of dilemma. In the course of writing this company report, I shall analyze this company from different viewpoints. The first is from its performance in the markets. This is usually a reliable indicator for the sort of direction in which a company is headed. The main advantage of the markets is that they respond simultaneously when anything important involving the company happens. Another yardstick shall be marketing. This is usually the be all and end all as far as some companies are concerned. We shall look at the role that advertising has played in this company. The third yardstick shall be the financial position of the company. We shall explore whether the company is self sustaining. Finally we shall look at the important matter of strategy and planning. Which mix of the two has the company employed and how successful has it been. After a long period of anticipation and speculation, this company finally went public on the week of 29th January 2012. Facebook’s offering to the public also doubled up as

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Childhood vaccinations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Childhood vaccinations - Essay Example Describing her helplessness, another polio sufferer writes, â€Å"I found it very frustrating to have an active mind in a permanently disabled body† (Gillan 1). Many individuals suffer from completely preventable diseases that could have been avoided if they were vaccinated in childhood. The very fact that a disease as preventable as polio was allowed to ruin so many lives makes it unbearable. Despite the awareness on immunizations and vaccinations, the multi-million dollar investments made by governments on vaccinations, the free camps and vaccination drives organized every day, there are many who fail to get their children immunized or are too scared to do so. Failure to get children immunized puts them at risk of innumerable life-threatening or permanently disabling diseases that would otherwise have been completely preventable. It is argued here that children should get immunized and that vaccination is the right of every child, as much as is his right to living. The World Health Organization (WHO) has a Millennium Development Goal 4 for reducing child (under five years of age) mortality by up to two thirds by the year 2015 (â€Å"10 facts on immunization† who.int). According to reports, millions of children die every year from diseases that could have been prevented through immunization. Vaccination is also a key strategy for the prevention of emergence of pandemic infections. The WHO reports that vaccination results in the prevention of about 2-3 million deaths all over the world each year (â€Å"10 facts on immunization† who.int). Deaths in all age groups from pertussis, diphtheria, tetanus, measles and polio have been prevented through vaccination, which is â€Å"one of the most successful and cost-effective public health interventions† (â€Å"10 facts on immunization† who.int). However, many individuals fail to get their children immunized, resulting in morbidity or

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Saudi Arabia's geography offers more opportunities than constraints Essay

Saudi Arabia's geography offers more opportunities than constraints - Essay Example The vast coastline offers potentials for transport, and the unique geographic features are untapped tourist attraction sites that can significantly develop the country. The paper, therefore, analyzes the positives of the location of Saudi Arabia in world geography as opposed to the perceived hindrances. It aims to instill information that Saudi Arabia is a land of opportunities, and the location is a blessing in disguise. As highlighted, Saudi Arabia is a big country in the Middle East. It borders seven countries some of which are Iraq, Oman, United Arabs Emirates (UAE), Jordan, and Peoples Republic of Yemen. The exceptional topographical location provides Saudi Arabia with opportunities for becoming the accessible and strategic market for west and east. The extensive boundaries also enhance the nation’s capacity to accommodate many products and the population is an ideal market for commodities from this nations. Therefore, the positioning is an excellent opportunity for market development and subsequent growth into an economic powerhouse of the Middle East. Saudi Arabia borders large continental water masses. Particularly, it has a vast coastline on the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The exclusive feature offers magnificent control in shipping and water transport. Specifically, the nation can benefit more by establishing structures for shipping crude oil from the region to other parts of the world. Likewise, the positioning makes it a transit route for export and import goods for other nations in the area. Utilizing the sea and developing sophisticated transport channels are some of the opportunities at the disposal of the Saudi Government. Hence, the coastline has great potentials of making Saudi Arabia a prominent logistic and transport center if well managed. Saudi Arabia has assorted geographic structures that include grasslands, ranges forests, mountain, and deserts. Most of Saudi Arabia landmass comprises of desert. In addition, the country

Understanding and interpreting financial data Coursework

Understanding and interpreting financial data - Coursework Example The vast competition and globalization that businesses face today means necessary steps to ensure continuous growth must be put in place. One method of doing this is the analysis of financial ratios. In this case, Bravo Ltd can obtain financial ratios using their latest financial statements and comparing the results with a competing business within the same industry. Alternatively, a business with the best business practice and a good track record is chosen as a benchmark for Bravo Ltd's improvement.It is a tool for interpreting the financial statements to assess financial and management performance. There are several types of financial ratios available that will benefit Bravo Ltd: Liquidity Ratios, Asset Management Ratios, Profitability Ratios and Gearing Ratios. Each ratio is measured differently and used according to the necessary analysis needed. This measures the ability of Bravo Ltd to meet its short-term financial liabilities as they fall due. It is of particular interest if Bravo Ltd wishes to extend its short-term credit facilities. There are two kinds of Liquidity Ratio - Current Ratio and Quick Ratio.Stocks are excluded in the calculation because stocks may include items that have uncertain liquidation values. Ideally, a ratio of 2 is considered safe for the former while a ratio below 1 is recommended for the latter.This measures how well Bravo Ltd utilizes its assets for the benefit of its business. Having a sound ratio will ensure that Bravo Ltd is better received by would-be investors. We will look at Inventory Turnover, Receivables Turnover, Average Collection Period and Fixed Asset Turnover. Inventory Turnover = Cost of Goods Sold / Inventory Receivables Turnover = Credit Sales / Accounts Receivables Average Collection Period = 365 / Receivables Turnover Fixed Asset Turnover = Sales / Fixed Assets Generally, a high turnover ratio is preferred. 2.3 Profitability Ratio There are several ratios available that can measure the ability of Bravo Ltd to generate profits from its sales. These include Gross Profit Margin, Return on Assets and Return on Equity. Gross Profit Margin = (Sales - Cost of Goods Sold) / Sales Return on Assets = Net Income / Total Assets Return on Equity = Net Income / Shareholders' Equity A good profit margin is essential in any form of business to ensure there is always enough cash to run its operations. Thus, it is also important that receivables are collected on a timely basis. 2.4 Gearing Ratio This assesses the financial risk of Bravo Ltd. A high gearing ratio poses risks if Bravo Ltd is unable to meet its financial obligations as this can very well lead to bankruptcy. Therefore, it is important that this is constantly monitored. The ratio is used is Debt to Equity Ratio. 3 FINDINGS RATIO 2007 ('000) 2008 ('000) Working Result Working Result Current Ratio 1770 / 560 3.16 2490 / 840 2.96 Quick Ratio 1770 - 930 / 560 1.50 2490 - 1250 / 840 1.48 Inventory Turnover 3020 / 1770 1.71 4550 / 2490 1.83 Receivables Turnover 4940 / 820 6.02 6850 / 1230 5.57 Average Collection Period 365 / 6.02 60 Days 365 / 5.57 66 Days Fixed Asset Turnover 4940 / 2600 1.90 6850 / 3210 2.13 Gross Profit Margin 1920 / 4940 39% 2300 / 6850 34% Return on Assets 460 / 4370 11% 450 / 5700 8% Return on Equity 460 / 3810 12% 450 / 4860 9% Debt to Equity 560 / 3810 15% 840 / 4860 17% Our findings show that Bravo Ltd has a good Liquidity Ratio. Its Current Ratio is 2.96 (3.16 in 2007) and its Quick Ratio is 1.48 (1.50 in 2007). This means Bravo Ltd is more than able to generate enough cash to settle its short-term liabilities. There has only been a slight change in its Liquidity Ratio over two years. As a guide, a current

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Enterprise Resource Planning Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Enterprise Resource Planning Systems - Essay Example Although ERP has been the cornerstone of the success stories of most companies from several years, there has not been a unified definition for the term ERP. The absence of a single definition is due to the intrinsic complexity of the motive behind ERP implementation. According to the PC Magazine, "ERP is a concept that aims at utilizing an integrated IT system, which serves all departments within an enterprise" (PC Magazine, 2007). The definition implies that an ERP system is not a custom software, but a packaged software that a company can configure to interface with its own IT systems and business processes (finance, logistics, HR, manufacturing etc). Some of today's leading ERP vendors are SAP, Oracle and Microsoft. Although its implementation has taken various forms, the essential concept of ERP has remained the same. Today ERP has become a worldwide industry standard term for the broad set of activities supported by multi-module application software that helps a manufacturer or other business manage the important parts of its business, including product planning, parts purchasing, maintaining inventories, interacting with suppliers, providing customer service, and tracking orders. ERP can also include application modules for the finance and human resources aspects of a business (EC Council, 2002). ERP is a standaERP Customization: The First Step to Success ERP is a standard software package, and like any other standard software package aimed at automating an anonymous industry; it must be tailored to the specific requirements of the business domain in which it is being used. According to Gartner Group (1997), the scale of Business Process Re-Engineering and customization account for the maximum reasons for ERP implementation failures. Therefore customization of the ERP software is a primary and a critical step in ERP implementation. Two types of tailoring methods can be applied to customize the ERP software to the specific business. Customize the ERP package to suit the business process. Business Process Re-Engineering: Customizing the Business Process to suit the ERP package. In the first scenario, the company buys the off-shelf ERP package, and customizes the software based on the business rules and policies defined by the company. The second scenario is the one that is most commonly applied. In this customization strategy, the company re-engineers its business processes to match the vendor's ERP logic. It is not essential that all the business processes of the company be re-engineered. The company performs BPR on only those business processes that are currently not in tandem with the philosophy of the ERP package. ERP implementation and BPR activities should be closely connected. ERP implementation should involve the analysis of current business processes and the chance of reengineering, rather than designing an application system that makes only the best of bad processes (Scheer & Habermann, 2000). Current ERP Technology Most current ERP software packages are based on 3-Tier Client Server Architecture. The 3 tiers of this architecture are: User Interface: Contains the GUI that receives user input. Business Logic: These are servers

Monday, July 22, 2019

Alcohol Abuse And Alcohol Dependence Essay Example for Free

Alcohol Abuse And Alcohol Dependence Essay According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders, Alcohol Abuse is defined as the harmful use of alcohol. Harmful use of Alcohol also implies the abusive use of alcohol and its physical and mental effects. Alcohol abusers according to the study are more prone to drink- seeking behaviors and alcohol tolerance. They can consume large amounts of alcohol to Alcohol abusers also have the psychological capacity to think of alcohol as a way to cure hangovers and exhibit the compulsion or the urge to drink or the compulsive need to consume alcohol. Those who exhibit alcohol abuse also show signs of alcohol abuse. Alcohol dependence is defined as a chronic disease that is influenced by the social and environmental factors. According to experts, Alcohol dependence is used by a person to avoid social and emotional problems in life. There are four signs of alcohol dependence: Constant craving for alcohol Withdrawal symptoms associated with the sudden stop of alcohol consumption Inability to stop alcohol consumption Alcohol tolerance Alcohol dependence brings about certain signs that show that a person is alcohol dependent: The urge to drink every morning Drinking alone and to feel comfortable around people Drinking to the point of experiencing blackout or results to intoxification Drinking to relieve tension or settle emotional or mental problems References Alcohol Dependence. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Health Authority: http://www.healthauthority.com/AlcoholDependence.htm

Sunday, July 21, 2019

Concepts of Belonging in Urban Development

Concepts of Belonging in Urban Development In this contemporary era where everything changes rapidly, people no longer relate themselves to just one discipline, but are cross-disciplinary. In the process of transition, the exchange of culture as well as information, the experience that one has and the knowledge that one gains is almost an instant experience. Often these instant experience and knowledge that one absorbs are incomplete due to the cutting short of information and over-emphasizing on the main point which subsequently result in a losing gap in between the original information to what we received. One might feel a sense of lost in time, history, memories and the lost in a sense of attachment, consistency, thus question our belonging; where is our home? How do we define belonging then? Can our belonging be fixed? In chapter 1 of the paper, I will discuss home as a metaphor of belonging; an anchor point. However, in this contemporary era, to name a place as the home that we belong can be superficial as the place that we belong are often not fixed. What give us the sense of belonging then? To discuss about belonging, unavoidably we associate it to a space. This Dissertation paper discusses two kinds of space the tangible space and the intangible space. Often, Space as an abstract notion seems boundless; we think of space as just air between one object and the other.[1] Space speaks more than just air molecules. Space with boundaries can be seen as a form or a thing. Space as an idea can be regarding individual perceptions which can be both conceptual and physical. These individual perceptions can be seen as the collective memory through ones experience. How do spaces give us a sense of belonging if our sense of space are often relate to the sense of place which are often unfixed. Despite of the uncertainty of our sense of place, what might give us a sense of continuity is probably the memory that were collected in the space which thus give us a sense of belonging. Memories exists in the past, present and future which thus creating a sense of continuity in a human existence timeline. Moving on from individual home to a nation, Chapter 2 addresses the lost of memory in city due to the urban development in Singapore. It will look into a brief history of Singapore Urban housing and city development, the significant of building as a time-marker that give us the sense of belonging and how the constant construction and destruction of building and places resulted in the lost of fixed identity. Is the lost of memory a lost of our belonging and identity or has it build a unique belonging and identity for Singaporean? As often been said, our belonging and identity are often been cultivate through arts and culture. In that sense, our local museum thus holds an important role in cultivating, preserving and passing on histories and cultural values to the masses. As much as we perceive the knowledge and history in the museum as a fact passing through from generation to generation, can the museum display and exhibition not be political constructed? Hence, even though Singapore government tried to preserve our â€Å"local identity† if we have ever or belonging through the form of arts and culture, the belonging that we perceive is still a constructed identity. Hence, a paradox and it seems like our identity is always in a confusion. Where do we belong? Chapter 1:- Belonging; Memory Belonging has been expounded as a possession, a member of a group such as a family, a school and a nation, ultimately belonging is about the relation of human being. Through the relation with peoples group, spaces and structure, human being thus creates their own identity. The sense of belonging and identity will also suggest a sense of security and stability. Hence, this sense of belonging becomes crucial in human life. Often, the sense of belonging has its relation associated with rooted-ness a sense of attachment towards a space; an attachment to our home. ‘For our house is our corner of the world. As has often been said, it is our first universe, a real cosmos in every sense of the world†¦[2] Author Gaston Bachelard explained in his book The Poetics of Space that the notion of home is a space where one is born and lives permanently. Home has often been idealized as an utopia space where there is a sense of continuity, security and perfection. Permanence is an important element in the idea of home as it suggests rooted-ness and a sense of immortality. In Space and Place the perspective of experience, Yi-Fu Tuan argued that home is the centre of the world; home is the focal point of a cosmic structure[3]. Both author explained home as the centre of ones world and it makes sense to say that our belonging is very much about our attachment to our roots; our home. The word centre will means origin which carries the meaning of beginning which is what Bachelard mentioned as the first universe; the centre of ones world. When and how do one has a sense of home then? Often the notion of home is blurred with the notion of house. ‘Here space is everything, for time ceases to quicken memory Memories are motionless, and the more securely they are fixed in space, the sounder they are.[4] Home as an abstract notion can be boundless. In the quotes above, Bachelard explained that what is being housed in the space (home) is the memories that has been created in the space. Home is a space where we root ourselves at and the most important element that gives us that sense of rooted-ness or attachment to a home is memory. Memory would also mean knowledge, history and memories; memory is an attempt to remember, recall or to record events, objects or even emotion. It is through these collective memories of a space that give us that sense of attachment and a kind of certainty toward oneself. As such, I would draw a boundaries that home is an emotional-mental state of belonging. Memory exists in the past, present and future which create a sense of continuity or immortality. Memory thus gives us a sense of security and certainty. As what Yi-Fu Tuan had mentioned in his writing, the value of a place is the experience that one created in that space. It is through the intimate human relationship and the familiarity of a space that one created a sense of attachment towards a space. Belonging, like memories should be fixed so as to attain a sense of stability. Memory is an abstract notion that requires to be objectified in order to be seen or understand and house plays the role in objectifying these abstract memories, it is a place that helps giving the meaning and value to home. House on the other hand, is a shelter that one goes to when sick, where intimate activities happen; a place or location that helps us to relate our past history and event. House in this case is a physical state of belonging. In a lot of ways, objects can be seen as spaces with boundaries and is malleable.[5] Objects in a house are like footages that give a trace and history of the inhabitant that once presence. The following images are a series of photograph by Singapore photographer, Ho Hui May. This series of artwork entitled Domestic Dystopia, 2007 presents a purview interior of an abandon house. [6] Domestic Dystopia Ho Hui May Photography series, 2007 In this series of photograph, Ho presented abandon objects of the domestic space after the inhabitants had move on. Those abandon objects suggests the lifestyle or characteristic of the inhabitants, almost like a 3-dimentional narrative of the past. For example the forest wall paper at the bottom right side represents 2 layers of nature. One layer of the wall paper can be seen as a natural ongoing process of ageing and decaying due to elements such as sunlight, water, oxygen and other natural substances and is peeling, fading and tearing off from the wall. Another layer of the wall paper presents an image of the forest which can also be read as the owners desire to have a piece of nature while living in a city. Hence, objects such as the wall paper gives clues of the life of the inhabitants. Objects inhabit space, and when attention is directed to an object, it is also directed to the space it occupies.[7] The function of the house thus is also a place to keep and collect object. The se functions can be seen as the collection and re-collection of memories. Objects in our life thus give us a sense of home and belonging. However, objects are originally neutral and meaningless. It is through the experience and relation of objects and people in that space, we insert our emotion and meaning to it and hence creating sentimental values to the object. Therefore, the question now is to what extend are those objects valuable when the meaning of it are constructed? Our house is also an object that is physically constructed and can be politically constructed as well. In that sense, how can we have a true sense of home and belonging if the memory and experience that we perceive are constructed? In Hos series of photograph; objects in the image are discarded. House in this case is also an object that has been discarded. If the objects in life are significant in provoking or capturing memories, why do people still abandon objects? Choosing objects to be abandoned and objects to be brought along are essential in the cities. Chapter 2: Urban development: abandon and constructive memory The city is a place of large settlement; a community of houses and buildings. Walking from one end to the other end, we can easily recognize the features in the cities. There is a sense of familiarity in the city that we lived in. Familiarity is to recognize, to remember or to recall things. It is through that sense of familiarity; the personal memories and the cultural history that we collected in the city that gives us a sense of belonging. The city that we lived in and return to eventually thus is our hometown; the centre of our world. Our hometown is a place where we rooted ourselves in. Unlike home which is built upon the individual experiences and personal memories, the city herself has an image to portray, the city that we lived in is being shape politically and economically so as to achieve economic growth and progression especially that of urban cities. In this chapter, I will like to take Singapore urban development as a case study and local artists responses to the issue of urban development and housing to discuss about the lost of memories and thus the lost of a fixed belonging to the Singaporean. Tracing back from the early days of Singapore Independency till today, she had boosted rapidly into a developed country. In the early days, the fundamental objective of Singapore housing development is to provide a shelter for every citizen. With the problem of housing shortage in the beginning of Singapore Independency, the Housing and Development Board (HDB) was established to provide the citizen with adequate standard of living, the local architect also strike for freedom to promote culture to the mass through national building.[8] With the increase of standard of living and income of the citizen, they no longer just desire for basic amenities but desire for a higher standard of living which result in a constant construction and destruction of buildings in Singapore. Shifting and relocating thus become common. In a lot of ways, our sense of place or location gives us the sense of identity, belonging and pride to the city that we lived in. Building of different time thus stands an important role in marking history of a city; they are almost like artefacts that connect us to our past; a reminder of historical event that once took place, the political and personal experience that once present. Two of the remarkable buildings in Singapore is the City Hall and Old Supreme court. over the years, Singaporean had witnessed many political events such as the japanese surrender, the national day and many more and the building together with the old Supreme court is currently preserved as a Singapore heritage building. Though building is being preserved but the function is not there anymore. (explain)It becomes a trademark of history, an attraction for tourist but no longer function as how it should be. What is the point of preserving when the function is no longer there? Singapore is a country that has been lost and found, found and lost again. (Quoted from Ho Tzu yen film) Many of our local artists have responded to the rapid urban transition with their art. One of our local film/ documentaries maker Tan Pin Pin has responded these issues in her documentaries such as the Invisible City and Moving House. Moving house speaks about the lost of tradition in the midst of Singapore land development. The documentary focuses on the Chews family who went to pay a visit to their parent at their tomb. That visit to the tomb was the last as they would have to dig out the bodies as the government had decided to develop that piece of land. â€Å"We should have a permanent cemetery so that the tradition can continuedtradition had die off.† quoted from Mr Chew. As of a tradition, it is necessary for dead bodies to be buried underground as a respect for the death. Each year during special occasion such as the Qing Ming festival, the Chew family will visit their parents tomb, almost like a picnic as Mr Chew mentioned. The bones of their parent were then cremate. What is lost is not just the lost of tradition but also the joy of gathering that they used to have. Singapore land development can be endless. Reason being that more public housing is required to cover population needs. There is no limit to our desire for space. After development is re-development, moving is re-moving whether or not it is voluntary, is no longer important. Moving house had highlighted our endless desire for space and better standard of living and in the mean time, highlighting our yearns for the past to be continue, a contradicting feeling in the midst of progressing into a world class society. Hence, the transforming of cityscape had also result in a lost of history. It somehow prompts us the question that in order to progress, do we have to discard the past? Are we ready to do that? Is it necessary to abandon/ disregards our past to pursue a ‘better future? How much can we give up actually? Over the years, we slowly identify the issue of urban development through the local artwork. Many lost memories were represented again as a form of art. Not having a fixed memory and belonging had affected artist in many way. Many had approach it in a sentimental manner, sometime in quite a negative way. Many of them chose to have our local HDB flats or construction sites as their subject matter. Interesting, the following photographer that I am going to introduce does not took the usual gigantic boxes as his subject matter instead, ‘junk that he collected as his subject. Chua Chye Tecks wonderland, 2007 is a series of photograph of junk, unwanted, abandon objects that he collected, to date this series consists of 500 pieces of images. Through these images, there are two main opponents that we have to take notes on; the idea of collecting and the idea of abandon in relation to the city. The idea of collecting plays an important part in this work as a way of indicating our social stature, professional affiliation, value system and personal taste. Another thing to consider is the objects being abandon; the ownership of physical object that hints our loftiest longings and deepest anxieties. With each purchase, we throw something away; by existing, we throw; because we move on, we throw. Also to note is that Chua does not keep any of this object as well. With each that he had collect and photograph, he abandoned it as well. Lastly, we consider the methods of presenting it first, objects are placed individually on a clean turquoise background, almost like lifting the value of the junk, giving it a new life. Every object or set of objects, here was no less exquisitely cared for and to read the image as objects existing inside a camera frame almost as preserved memories. As much as we are reluctant to give up on what is valuable to us, we still ought to do so in order to progress†¦ is this voice of the citizen or the voice of government? Chuas work is interesting as it reflects on how much we had abandon in the process of urbanization and to collect it again is to recollect memory, thus memory being lost and found. As compared to Pin Pins film, it reflects how one has to give up in the the process of urbanization despite of ones resistant to change. In the process of change, one long for a sense of permanency, a fixed belonging. What image is Singapore trying to portray at the end of the day when its limited history are slowly faded away over the years? Whether or not Singapore has a rich history and culture are not important as compared to economic growth. This prompt the question of whether the progression and development into a better yet ever-changing rapid lifestyle changes our view of what is to be casted off and what is to be collected in the process? Has Singapore come to realize the lost of memory in the city To question about what has been lost, what do we discard in the process of progression, what we yearn and what we desire to retain goes down to the question of choice and it was clear that we had chosen for economic growth than having the history that give us a fixed belonging. These choices might not be make by the citizen but the government. The government has probably realise the crucial needs to cultivate our national identity; our belonging. As much as our short history had been constantly being buried underneath with the rapid urban development, Singapore in the mean time is trying to construct identity. As often been said, where we belong are often cultivate through the arts and culture that we belong to. Thus, one essential ways to input these lost of history or memory is through local art. What is the role of arts and culture in cultivating our national identity then? Chapter 3: The paradox What is singapore culture? Multi- culture. Mixture of east and west. Rojak. Anything and everything becomes our culture. The Renaissance city plan[9] is a proposal that the government come out every five year and the recent plan will be to go all out to developed the image of an global art city. With this proposal, lots of funding were put into art spaces, schools and institution such as LaSalle college of the Arts, Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts(NAFA), the Singapore Arts Museum(SAM), Asian Civilian Museum(ACM), the National history museum as well as the National art gallery that is opening this year. The aims of this proposal is nevertheless to be an global art city, however what is contradicting is that as much as Singapore aims to go global, it still want to retain the sense of local through event such as Singapore art show. So what is Singapore aiming at the end of the day? She wants an image of everything and anything. She is trying to give encouragement for art yet maintaining tight restrictions on arts and culture. Through inclusion of artwork in public spaces and the incorporation of tasteful design and landscaping in the neighbourhood, we can widen peoples exposure to and appreciation of arts and its relevance in everyday life. (esplanade for cultural activities, government funding for art institution BUT still maintaining tight restrictions on art and cultural work) (wanting to go global and in the mean time wanting to stay localwhat is local?) However, can we really perceive the memory that we collected in the museum as our belonging when the exhibition can be politically constructed or frame? In that sense, what we perceive as our belonging; our home is constructed. Hence, how the city is shaped somehow shape that we are as an individual being. Lynn C. Robertson, Space, objects, minds, and brains (New York, N.Y. : Psychology Press, 2004), 1. Gaston Bachelard, The poetics of space, trans. Maria Jolas (Boston, Mass. : Beacon Press, 1994), 4. Yi fu tuan 149 Ibid, 9. Robertson, 3. Domestic Dystopia provides an insight into six interiors of dilapidated houses in Singapore. Each photograph reveals the traces of footsteps and impressions left behind by previous occupants, encapsulating these moments in their personal histories in a snapshot of time. Most of these houses have been abandoned and are left in a state of disrepair. By becoming a translator, Ho takes on the task of translating the deep sense of loss and nostalgia she feels when she is inside these houses onto a series of photographs. Picture credit: Curating lab: 100 remix workshop organised by the National University of Singapore museum partnership with National Art Council of Singapore Robertson, From building dream- tan pin pin explain

Microstructure-mechanical Property Relationships

Microstructure-mechanical Property Relationships Microstructure-mechanical property relationships in high strength low alloy steels for automotive applications Chapter 1 Introduction The production of steel is an ancient process which has evolved over time. Where and when Steel was first created is unknown and a topic of much debate, however most historians believe earliest production of steel originates from China from as early as 202BC. A later form of steel named Wootz Steel was later developed in India, which used wind power to fuel a furnace producing nearly pure steel. In the 11th century China developed steel further was the first country to mass produce steel. Two methods were developed. A berganesque method which produced inhomogeneous steel, and a process which that relied on partial decarbonisation through repeated forging under a cold blast, this was seen as the superior method, and one which lead on to the Bessemer process [1].The Bessemer process involved using a blast furnace to extract iron from its ore and is the basis of modern steel extraction. Steel is produced firstly by extracting iron from its ore. Iron extraction differs slightly from other metals as it can only be found naturally in oxide form. This means that a smelting process is required. This involves a reduction reaction followed by alloying with additional elements like carbon to stabilise and strengthen the steel. Iron smelting requires a high temperature which produces a ferrous material made of a combination of iron and steel. The addition of alloying elements such as carbon affect the materials properties greatly. Changing the temperature at which the iron is smelted affects the phase of the resultant steel, giving rise to the possibility of producing steels with varying properties which are suitable for a range of applications. In the automotive industry, body frames were originally made of hardwood. This was replaced in 1923 when the American Rolling Company developed steel sheet production. The wooden frames were inferior in energy absorption which was a big safety issue. Steel was also much easier to form than wood and did not warp over time. As the automobile has evolved over time, there has been an increasing public awareness of the environmental impact of the car. This has forced manufacturers to produce lighter cars which are more economical. This brought about the development of thin, highly formable sheet steel. The main competitor to steel in the automotive industry is Aluminium, which offers a much better strength to weight ratio and also a better resistance to corrosion. However steel is still the most commonly used material mainly due to lower production cost. Increasing competition from aluminium is forcing the development of modern steels. Steel naturally has a higher formability and elongation than aluminium which is one of the reasons it is used so extensively in the automotive sector. This can be seen in Figure 1.1: Figure 1.1- Yield strength vs total elongation of aluminium alloys and automotive steels [3] Ultra low carbon (ULC) steels are used commonly in the production of automobiles. Their, highy formability and suitability for hot dip galvanising make them very attractive to automobile producers[4]. Pressure is being put on the manufacturers to produce lightweight cars that minimise emissions without compromising safety. Metallic properties required to achieve this consist of a high tensile strength, high r- value, good ductility and also the ability to be made resistant to corrosion (either naturally or through the use of chemical surface treatment). Various high performance steels have been developed to meet these requirements, of these, one of the most important being HSLA steels. High strength low alloy steels provide a much better strength to weight ratio than conventional low carbon steels allowing for thinner grades to be used, saving weight. HSLA steels have a manganese content of up to 1.5%, as well as microalloying elements such as vanadium and titanium. HSLA steels are increasingly replacing traditional low carbon steels for many automotive parts. This is due to their ability to reduce weight without compromising strength and dent resistance. Typical applications include door-intrusion beams, chassis members, reinforcing and mounting brackets, steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels [5]. High strength low alloy steel properties are determined by the way in which they are processed. High deep drawability, can be achieved through precipitation of elements by annealing to produce a strong {111} recrystallisation texture [7], producing highly formable steels which are very desirable for automotive applications. In this study, two grades of IFHS strips are studied. A titanium only stabilised steel grade and a titanium-vanadium stabilised steel grade. These have been treated using a Viking tube furnace and studied using a scanning electron microscope, Photoshop and Optilab Software. Both steel grades have been studied using carefully selected thermo mechanical heat treatment cycles. The heating variables are expected to cause varying effects to the mechanical properties and microstructure of the two materials. The addition of vanadium in one of the steel grades is also expected to influence the mechanical properties. With the data obtained from my experiments I hope to determine the optimum processing route for similar HSLA steels. Chapter 2 Aims Carry out selective batch annealing heat treatments on two microalloyed High Strength IF strip steels. Measure grain size evolution samples using scanning electron microscopy and quantitave optical microscopy techniques. Measure mechanical properties of obtained samples using hardness and tensile testing techniques Determine the optimum processing characteristics, resulting in optimum mechanical property characteristics. Chapter 3 Literature Review 3.1 AUTOMOTIVE STEELS Automotive manufacturers make use of many different metals in the production of cars, of which the most predominant being steel. This is for several reasons, steel is relatively easy to recycle in comparison with polymers and aluminium, and this is an issue which is growing in importance as the public are becoming more and more environmentally aware. Steel is also a very good material in terms of its practicality, as it is easily welded, has good formability, elongation and ductility. As the environmental impact of cars is becoming more and more important, stringent regulations regarding emissions are being forced upon manufacturers. One of the ways that manufacturers have chosen to meet these requirements is to make the cars lighter by switching from mild steel to high strength steel grades which enables components to have a thinner cross section, saving weight. The three main types of steels used in automobiles today are; Low strength (IF and mild steels), High strength (Carbon manganese, bake hardening, IFHS and HSLA) Advanced high strength steels (dual-phase, complex phase, transformation induced plasticity and matensitic steels) These steel types can be seen below on figure 3.1 comparing their elongation and strength. Figure 3.1: Classification of automotive steels [8]. 3.1.1 Mild Steels Mild steels are normally found in two different forms for automotive purposes. Drawn Quality and Aluminium killed. These are both cheap to manufacture are used for high volume parts. They are usually of a ferrite microstructure. [8] 3.1.2 Interstitial Free Steels IF steels are used for car body panels extensively due largely to their deep drawability. The high elongation achieved in comparison with other steel grades can be seen in figure 3.1.The main characteristic of IF steel is a low carbon and nitrogen content. These elements are removed from solution by adding specific elements for alloys. Commonly used elements for this microalloying process include Manganese, Sulphur, Titanium and Niobium. As well as a deep drawability, IF steel have low yield strength but a poor dent resistance which is undesirable for certain automotive applications [6] Bake Hardening Steels BH steels keep carbon in solution either during processing before it is precipitated or during the paint baking state [8]. This strengthens the steel through solid solution strengthening, resulting in steel with both high formability and high strength. 3.1.4 Carbon-Manganese Steels Carbon-manganese steels are solid solution strengthened and are used in strip form on automobile bodies, although they are becoming replaced by lighter steel grades. They offer high drawability and are relatively cheap to produce. [9] D.T.Llewellyn: Steel: Metallurgy and Applications, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Great Britain, 1992. 3.1.5 High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels HSLA steels are strengthened through the addition of microallying elements. These react with the carbon and nitrogen within the steel to form carbides and nitrides. Common elements include Nb, V and Ti. The resultant steel has both high strength and a high formability due to very fine grain sizes [10] Dual-Phase (DP) Steels Dual-phase steels contain two phases within their microstructure. These are ferrite and martensite. This two phase structure is produced through a complex series of contolled heating and cooling. Martensite regions are produced by heating and rapidly cooling. It is the marteniste regions tha give the hardness to the material where as the ferrite regions are much softer. The structure of DP steels takes advantages of the properties of each of the phases, where the hard maternsite regions are surrounded by softer ferrite which reduces brittleness, shown in figure 3.2. DP steel has good ductility, low yield strength but high work hardening rate [8]. Figure 3.2: Microstructure of DP steel [8]. 3.1.7 Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steels TRIP steels consist of a mainly ferrite microstructure with a low austenite content within the matrix. An isothermal hold during production at an intermediate temperature is used to produce bainite [8]. Strength is increased by transformationing of austenite regions to harder martensite regions. TRIP steels have a good work hardening rate and good strength. Work hardening in TRIP steels continues at higher strain levels than those of DP steels so TRIP steels is a superior material from this aspect. Figure 3.3 shows the multi phase microstructure of TRIP steel. Figure 3.3: Microstructure of TRIP steel [8]. Martensitic (MS) Steel MS steels are mainly of a martensitic microstructure but contain small amounts of ferrite and bainite. During heat treatment the steel is rapidly cooled transforming austenite into martensite. This gives a very high tensile strength since martensite produces a very hard material, but the drawback is this also gives a low formability. In order to overcome this low formability further processing such as heat treatments must be undertaken. [11] 3.1.9 High Strength Interstitial Free (HS-IF) Steels HSIF steels are strengthened through the addition of microalloying elements. Commonly used alloying elements include P, B, Si, Mn, Ti, N. The combinations in which the microalloying elements are used have an effect on the properties of resultant steel allowing a range of requirements to be met. HSIF steels can produce nearly twice the potential yield strength as conventional IF steels, although there is a reduction in formability. 3.2 Microalloying Elements 3.2.1 Carbon Carbon is one of the most important interstitial elements within steel, giving very different mechanical properties as its percentage content is altered and therefore must be studied in depth. Carbon is an element commonly found in automotive steels due to its high strength properties. Although adding carbon increases strength, it also affects the formability, i.e. its deep drawability. A set of experiments were carried out to determine the effect of carbon content within steel. When analysing the tensile test results it was noted that the ultimate tensile strength, the proof stress and the yield stress all increased as the amount of carbon increased in the steel. The plastic region as well as the general elongation of the steel under tensile stress decreased as the carbon content increased. These are significant changes in the mechanical properties. Hardness and Tensile strength increase as carbon content approaches 0.85% C as shown in figure 3.4. The elongation percentage decreases as the carbon content increases. This suggests that the more carbon present in the material, the stronger and less ductile it becomes. Figure 3.4: Affect of Carbon content in Steel Yield Strength Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon molecules fit into the interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-centred cubic arrangement of the iron molecules. The interstitial carbons make it more difficult for any dislocation to occur as it reduces mobility. This has a hardening effect on the metal. Phase diagram Using the phase diagram one can understand why the properties of steels change with differing carbon content. Figure 3.5: Phase Diagram The gamma phase, relates to an Austenite range which has a Face Centred Cubic (FCC) structure. The alpha phase relates to a ferritic Body Centered Cubic crystal structure. Ferrite is found extensively in automotive steels, its BCC structure is much less dense than the FCC of austenite which makes it easily formable and therefore relatively cheap to manufacture. Fe3C refers to cementite and the mixture of alpha (ferrite) + cementite is called pearlite. On the phase diagram steels only apply up to about 1.4% carbon. The eutectoid point is at 723 degrees and is where there are three phases in equilibrium. The eutectoid composition is Fe-0.83%C. The reaction that happens at the eutectoid point is: austenite > ferrite + cementite gamma > alpha + Fe3C High carbon content means a greater precense of austenite, whereas low carbon content will give less austenite and a more ferritic microstructure. The affect of these differing microstructures is reflected in their mechanical properties. This is because Ferrite is soft and ductile and Cementite is hard and brittle. It can be seen by looking at figure 3.5 that as the carbon content is increased, strength increases. This relationship occurs up to the eutectoid point after which it starts to reduce. This where cementite grain-boundaries are created. The figure below shows how the varying content of carbon in steel affects its properties and suitability for different applications. Figure 3.6 Carbon Steel Applications Lever rule The lever rule can be used to calculate expected proportions of the phases present in each of the tested carbon steel specimens. These values can then be compared to the values obtained through testing. Figure 3.7 Lever Rule Calculations: a = Ferrite a + Fe3C = Pearlite 0.1wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen: % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.1)   Ã‚   = 0.897   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.1- 0.02)    = 0.103   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8- 0.02) 0.4wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen: % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.4)   Ã‚   = 0.513   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.4- 0.02)    = 0.487   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8- 0.02) 0.8wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen: % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.8)    = 0   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.8- 0.02)   = 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (0.8- 0.02) These results suggest that as the carbon content increases the pearlite to ferrite ratio also increases. So the ratio of Pearlite to ferrite increases as carbon content is increased the material is made harder, stronger and more brittle but less ductile. These results obtained using the lever rule support the results obtained from the tensile test, showing the steel with the highest carbon content to be the least ductile and most brittle. The results are also supported by the findings from the hardness test which shows the steel with the highest carbon content to be the hardest. 3.2.2 Titanium The addition of Titanium to IFHS steels is particularly useful in the manufacturing of strip steels where good drawability is a requirement. The addition of Ti or Nb results in a lower Yield Strength/Tensile Strength ratio giving an increased formability. This can be seen in figure 3.8. When Titanium reacts with Carbon and Nitrogen it forms TiC and TiN, these precipitates work to delay recrystallisation of austenite, thus refining the grains to a favourable smaller size [12]. Figure 3.8: The effect of Titanium and Niobium on Yield Srength/UTS ratio [12] Titanium precipitates exist within steels and these affect the mechanical properties. TiN precipitates help to promote recrystallisation and encourage the {111} texture. TiS precipitates are commonly found in the austenite region as well as Ti4C2S2, Ti4C2S2 is formed by reacting with Carbon and in the highest regions of the austenite range there is little to no Carbon. These conditions are created at very high temperatures similar to those during hot rolling processes. This leaves the steel highly formable and suitable for deep drawability application such as car body panels. It is very difficult however to form Ti4C2S2 as it is less stable than TiS, although it can be encouraged through specific heat treatment processes. [13] 3.2.3 Vanadium Titanium is commonly added with Niobium to steels to increase formability through precipitation. However these additions can result in a retardation of recrystallisation meaning a higher temperature or longer soaking time is required for recyrstallisation to occur. Vanadium offers a replacement to Niobium in the form of carbides and nitrides, VC and VN, which does not cause such a drastic retardation of recyrstallisation. This is attractive to manufacturers as lower temperatures and shorter processing time during annealing are more cost effective. The effectiveness of Vandium in essentially lowering the recrystallisation temperature is shown in Figure 3.9. Figure 3.9: The effect of Ti + Nb, Ti + V and V stabilised steels on the Temperature for Complete Recrystallisation in 30 Seconds [44]. Figure 3.9 shows that the V only stabilised steel recrystallises at a lower temperature than the TiV and TiNb steels. 3.2.4 Sulphur Sulphur is found in all steels including Interstitial Free High Strength Steels. It acts as an interstitial elements and other elements to form precipitates such as TiS, MnS and Ti4C2S2. These precipitates have different effects on the mechanical properties of the material. In particular the precipitation of carbosulphides is beneficial to the steel as this causes the steel to form in the austenite range and helps to reduce the TiC formation which could occur during heat treatment processing and cause the material to become less likely to form the {111} texture.[13] Promoting Ti4C2S2 therefore encourages the formation of the favourable {111} texture, increasing the formability of the material. In order for Ti4C2S2 to develop, Sulphur, Carbon and Titanium must all be present, and processed in such a way as to form a reaction, which can difficult. 3.2.5 Niobium Niobium if found extensively in IFHS Steels reacting with carbon to form carbides such as NbC. Solute Niobium can be used to segregate austenite and ferrite grain boundaries and increase the strength of the austenite region [14]. As Niobium content increases the r-value decreases as well as the ductility. Generally Nb content is minimised as much as possible as the positive effect it has on strength in the austenite region is relatively small and is outweighed by the negative effect it has on ductility. Boron can be used instead of Niobium as it has a much greater effect on strength than Niobium. This can be seen in figure 3.9 Figure 3.9: Average Flow Stress vs. Temperature for B, C, and Nb and Mo solutes in steel [15]. 3.2.6 Phosphorus Phosphorus, P, is a common alloy of IFHS steel, offering increases in strength through solid solution hardening. Adding Phosphorus can also have a direct effect on the grains within a structure by increasing the Hall-Petch slope (described below). Adding P however can have a negative effect on the brittleness of the material. This can be particularly problematic during the cold working process where brittle fracture is a distinct possibility. The Hall-Petch relationship says that as the grain size decreases the yield strength of a material increases. This is due to the dislocations piling up at grain boundaries, which act as barriers to dislocation movement at low temperatures. If the grain size is large, then a high number of dislocations will pile up at the edge of the slip plane. When the stress exceeds a critical value the dislocations cross the boundary. So the larger the grain size, the lower the applied stress required to reach this critical stress at the grain boundary, meaning the larger the grain size, the lower the yield stress due to easier dislocation movement. This is true down to a grain size of 100nm. Below this size the yield strength remains constant or starts to decrease. This is effect is called the reverse Hall-Petch effect. Phosphorus along with Silicon and Manganese are added via solid solution strengthening to strengthen steel allowing for a thinner sheet of metal to be used for car body panels, and thus reducing the weight. Phosphorus is the most effective out of the three elements in terms of cost and strengthening effect. This can be seen below in figure 3.11 where the effects of P and S additions are compared. Figure 3.11: Comparison of Stress vs. Temperature between Phosphorus and Silicon microalloyed Steels [16]. Phosphorus is also found in the form of FeTiP precipitates. These precipitates have a negative affect on strength and drawability. The effects of these precipitates are greater in batch annealed steels than in continuous steels. This is due to the long soaking times required in batch annealing which provides optimum conditions and sufficient time for these precipitates to form [17]. 3.2.7 Manganese Manganese is added through solid solution strengthening to IFHS steels in a low concentration in order to react with the Sulphur to produce MnS precipitates. These MnS precipitates act to refine grain structure during processing when there is a transformation in phase between austenite and ferrite. Mn is to strengthen steels through solid solution strengthening. The effect of Mn is relatively small in the austenite range but compared to the ferrite range. This is due to a difference in Mn solubility between the austenite and ferrite ranges. Where Mn in ferrite is 10wt% higher than in austenite [18] Mn acts to stabilize the austenite region and slows down the rate of austenite transformation and also the temperature at which the transformation takes place. This lowering of transformation temperature between austenite and ferrite promotes finer grains through grain refinement. Mn can be found in oxide and sulphide forms as well as combinations of the two, oxysulphides. These oxides and sulphides act to deoxidise and desulphurise the steel. When in sulphide form, MnS helps to reduce embrittlement of steel without reducing hardness. When mixed with common impurities such as Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, CaO, CaS and FeS an increase in hardness and strength occurs [19]. When in the oxide form, MnO at the surface acts a barrier layer to prevent surface oxidisation and corrosion. 3.2.8 Silicon Silicon is a useful element and is used to increase the strength through solid solution strengthening, although there is a compromise as increasing Silicon content decreases ductility. Silicon is also found in oxide form, as silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide is found with Manganese Oxide or as Silicomanganese to give a strong oxygen stabilisation and prevent corrosion of steel. [20]. 3.2.9 Aluminium Aluminium is used to deoxidise steel by reacting with oxygen within the steel to form Al2O3. These Aluminium Oxides are later removed leaving an oxygen free steel. However the low density of Aluminium means that oxidisation could occur at the steel interface resulting in corrosion. Aluminium content can have a negative effect on formability. This is due to the precipitation of AlN during recrystallisation preventing the {111} development and thus preventing the formation of finer grains. So minimising the amount of AlN in solid solution results in higher formability. A more stable alternative to AlN which is commonly used in IFHS steels is TiN. 3.3 Hardening and processing There are many different compositions of steel which offer various advantageous properties. The main reason for altering composition or alloying is to strengthen the material. This can be done in several ways; 3.3.1 Precipitation strengthening This process uses heat treatment to raise the yield strength of a material. As temperature changes during heat treatment processing, fine particles are produced due to differing melting points of impurities. These fine particles impede dislocation movement. This in turn reduces the ductility and plasticity of the material and increases its hardness. 3.2.2 Solid – solution strengthening Solid solution strengthening is a form of alloying. It is a commonly used technique to improve the strength of a material. Atoms of the alloying element are added to the crystal lattice of the base metal via diffusion. There are two ways in which this can occur, depending on the size of the alloying alloying element. These are via substitutional solid solution, and interstitial solid solution. Substitutional solid solution This takes place when the sizes of the alloying atoms are equal in size to the base atoms, (Differing in size by no more than 15% according to the Hume-Rothery rules) The alloying atoms replace the solvent atoms and assume their lattice positions. The solute atoms can produce a slight distortion of the crystal lattice, due to the size variation. The amount of distortion increases with the size of the solute atom. This distortion has an effect on microstructural properties. The formation of slip planes is altered making dislocation movement more difficult, meaning a higher stress is required to move the dislocations. This gives the material a higher strength. A generalisation associated with substitution is that large substitutional atoms put the structure under compressive stress, and small substitutional atoms give tensile stress. Interstitial solid solution This occurs when the alloying atoms are much smaller than the base atoms. The alloying atoms fit into spaces within the crystal lattice. This is the case with carbon in steel, where carbon is a solute in the iron solvent lattice. The carbon atoms are less than half the size of the iron atoms so an interstitial solid solution forms. 3.3.3 Processing The final properties of steel are greatly affected by the manner in which it is first made and then processed. Typical processes include steel making, casting, hot and cold rolling and annealing. Each individual process has a distinct affect on the properties of the steel. To make the steel free from interstitial elements, Ti and Nb are often added to react with interstitials after a process called vacuum degassing. Vacuum degassing is the name given to the process where a metal is melted within a vacuum and the gasses are evaporated out. Hot and cold rolling Hot rolling is the first process to take place after steel making. After steel has been cast into uniform slabs or billets it is the rolled under a high temperature to reduce its cross sectional thickness. The hot rolling process is undertaken at a temperature above that at which recrystallisation occurs. Hot rolling reduces allows recrysallisation to occur during processing (dynamic recrystallisation) and the material is left stress free due the new grain nucleation and equiaxed grains. Effect of hot working on microstructure: Hot working occurs at high temperatures, this means that there is often enough thermal energy present for recrsytallisation to occur during deformation. This is called dynamic recrystallisation and it occurs with most metals, apart from aluminium. Recrystallisation occurs during the working process and also as the metal is cooling. Dynamic recrystallisation occurs by new grains nucleating at existing grain boundaries. The amount of recyrstallisation depends on several factors. It depends on the strain rate, temperature and amount of strain on the metal. Generally, as strain within the metal increases, so does the amount of recrystallisation. Cold working is when steel is plastically deformed below its recrystallisation temperature. This process increases the yield strength due to the plastic deformation causing slight defects within the microstructure of the metal. These defects make it difficult for slip planes to move. The grain size of the metal is also reduced, making the material harder through a process called Hall petch hardening. Hall Petch hardening, also known as grain boundary strengthening, increases materials strength by altering the grain size. This is because grain boundaries act as barriers to dislocation movement. So altering the grain size, through hot and cold rolling at various temperatures and rates will have an effect on dislocation movement and yield strength. Cold working will increase the strength of the metal by making it increasingly difficult for slip to occur. However as more and more of the larger grains split to form smaller grains the ductility is greatly reduced as the material hardens. Eventually fracture would occur. To avoid this, the material is annealed. Cold working occurs at a temperature below 0.4 of the metals melting point. Some of the energy created by the process is expelled as heat but some energy is stored within the structure putting it into a high energy state. The energy is stored within the grain boundaries of the deformed crystals and within the stress fields of the dislocations created through the plastic deformation. The structure is highly stressed after cold working and would prefer to return to its former low energy state. It is howeve Microstructure-mechanical Property Relationships Microstructure-mechanical Property Relationships Microstructure-mechanical property relationships in high strength low alloy steels for automotive applications Chapter 1 Introduction The production of steel is an ancient process which has evolved over time. Where and when Steel was first created is unknown and a topic of much debate, however most historians believe earliest production of steel originates from China from as early as 202BC. A later form of steel named Wootz Steel was later developed in India, which used wind power to fuel a furnace producing nearly pure steel. In the 11th century China developed steel further was the first country to mass produce steel. Two methods were developed. A berganesque method which produced inhomogeneous steel, and a process which that relied on partial decarbonisation through repeated forging under a cold blast, this was seen as the superior method, and one which lead on to the Bessemer process [1].The Bessemer process involved using a blast furnace to extract iron from its ore and is the basis of modern steel extraction. Steel is produced firstly by extracting iron from its ore. Iron extraction differs slightly from other metals as it can only be found naturally in oxide form. This means that a smelting process is required. This involves a reduction reaction followed by alloying with additional elements like carbon to stabilise and strengthen the steel. Iron smelting requires a high temperature which produces a ferrous material made of a combination of iron and steel. The addition of alloying elements such as carbon affect the materials properties greatly. Changing the temperature at which the iron is smelted affects the phase of the resultant steel, giving rise to the possibility of producing steels with varying properties which are suitable for a range of applications. In the automotive industry, body frames were originally made of hardwood. This was replaced in 1923 when the American Rolling Company developed steel sheet production. The wooden frames were inferior in energy absorption which was a big safety issue. Steel was also much easier to form than wood and did not warp over time. As the automobile has evolved over time, there has been an increasing public awareness of the environmental impact of the car. This has forced manufacturers to produce lighter cars which are more economical. This brought about the development of thin, highly formable sheet steel. The main competitor to steel in the automotive industry is Aluminium, which offers a much better strength to weight ratio and also a better resistance to corrosion. However steel is still the most commonly used material mainly due to lower production cost. Increasing competition from aluminium is forcing the development of modern steels. Steel naturally has a higher formability and elongation than aluminium which is one of the reasons it is used so extensively in the automotive sector. This can be seen in Figure 1.1: Figure 1.1- Yield strength vs total elongation of aluminium alloys and automotive steels [3] Ultra low carbon (ULC) steels are used commonly in the production of automobiles. Their, highy formability and suitability for hot dip galvanising make them very attractive to automobile producers[4]. Pressure is being put on the manufacturers to produce lightweight cars that minimise emissions without compromising safety. Metallic properties required to achieve this consist of a high tensile strength, high r- value, good ductility and also the ability to be made resistant to corrosion (either naturally or through the use of chemical surface treatment). Various high performance steels have been developed to meet these requirements, of these, one of the most important being HSLA steels. High strength low alloy steels provide a much better strength to weight ratio than conventional low carbon steels allowing for thinner grades to be used, saving weight. HSLA steels have a manganese content of up to 1.5%, as well as microalloying elements such as vanadium and titanium. HSLA steels are increasingly replacing traditional low carbon steels for many automotive parts. This is due to their ability to reduce weight without compromising strength and dent resistance. Typical applications include door-intrusion beams, chassis members, reinforcing and mounting brackets, steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels [5]. High strength low alloy steel properties are determined by the way in which they are processed. High deep drawability, can be achieved through precipitation of elements by annealing to produce a strong {111} recrystallisation texture [7], producing highly formable steels which are very desirable for automotive applications. In this study, two grades of IFHS strips are studied. A titanium only stabilised steel grade and a titanium-vanadium stabilised steel grade. These have been treated using a Viking tube furnace and studied using a scanning electron microscope, Photoshop and Optilab Software. Both steel grades have been studied using carefully selected thermo mechanical heat treatment cycles. The heating variables are expected to cause varying effects to the mechanical properties and microstructure of the two materials. The addition of vanadium in one of the steel grades is also expected to influence the mechanical properties. With the data obtained from my experiments I hope to determine the optimum processing route for similar HSLA steels. Chapter 2 Aims Carry out selective batch annealing heat treatments on two microalloyed High Strength IF strip steels. Measure grain size evolution samples using scanning electron microscopy and quantitave optical microscopy techniques. Measure mechanical properties of obtained samples using hardness and tensile testing techniques Determine the optimum processing characteristics, resulting in optimum mechanical property characteristics. Chapter 3 Literature Review 3.1 AUTOMOTIVE STEELS Automotive manufacturers make use of many different metals in the production of cars, of which the most predominant being steel. This is for several reasons, steel is relatively easy to recycle in comparison with polymers and aluminium, and this is an issue which is growing in importance as the public are becoming more and more environmentally aware. Steel is also a very good material in terms of its practicality, as it is easily welded, has good formability, elongation and ductility. As the environmental impact of cars is becoming more and more important, stringent regulations regarding emissions are being forced upon manufacturers. One of the ways that manufacturers have chosen to meet these requirements is to make the cars lighter by switching from mild steel to high strength steel grades which enables components to have a thinner cross section, saving weight. The three main types of steels used in automobiles today are; Low strength (IF and mild steels), High strength (Carbon manganese, bake hardening, IFHS and HSLA) Advanced high strength steels (dual-phase, complex phase, transformation induced plasticity and matensitic steels) These steel types can be seen below on figure 3.1 comparing their elongation and strength. Figure 3.1: Classification of automotive steels [8]. 3.1.1 Mild Steels Mild steels are normally found in two different forms for automotive purposes. Drawn Quality and Aluminium killed. These are both cheap to manufacture are used for high volume parts. They are usually of a ferrite microstructure. [8] 3.1.2 Interstitial Free Steels IF steels are used for car body panels extensively due largely to their deep drawability. The high elongation achieved in comparison with other steel grades can be seen in figure 3.1.The main characteristic of IF steel is a low carbon and nitrogen content. These elements are removed from solution by adding specific elements for alloys. Commonly used elements for this microalloying process include Manganese, Sulphur, Titanium and Niobium. As well as a deep drawability, IF steel have low yield strength but a poor dent resistance which is undesirable for certain automotive applications [6] Bake Hardening Steels BH steels keep carbon in solution either during processing before it is precipitated or during the paint baking state [8]. This strengthens the steel through solid solution strengthening, resulting in steel with both high formability and high strength. 3.1.4 Carbon-Manganese Steels Carbon-manganese steels are solid solution strengthened and are used in strip form on automobile bodies, although they are becoming replaced by lighter steel grades. They offer high drawability and are relatively cheap to produce. [9] D.T.Llewellyn: Steel: Metallurgy and Applications, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Great Britain, 1992. 3.1.5 High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels HSLA steels are strengthened through the addition of microallying elements. These react with the carbon and nitrogen within the steel to form carbides and nitrides. Common elements include Nb, V and Ti. The resultant steel has both high strength and a high formability due to very fine grain sizes [10] Dual-Phase (DP) Steels Dual-phase steels contain two phases within their microstructure. These are ferrite and martensite. This two phase structure is produced through a complex series of contolled heating and cooling. Martensite regions are produced by heating and rapidly cooling. It is the marteniste regions tha give the hardness to the material where as the ferrite regions are much softer. The structure of DP steels takes advantages of the properties of each of the phases, where the hard maternsite regions are surrounded by softer ferrite which reduces brittleness, shown in figure 3.2. DP steel has good ductility, low yield strength but high work hardening rate [8]. Figure 3.2: Microstructure of DP steel [8]. 3.1.7 Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steels TRIP steels consist of a mainly ferrite microstructure with a low austenite content within the matrix. An isothermal hold during production at an intermediate temperature is used to produce bainite [8]. Strength is increased by transformationing of austenite regions to harder martensite regions. TRIP steels have a good work hardening rate and good strength. Work hardening in TRIP steels continues at higher strain levels than those of DP steels so TRIP steels is a superior material from this aspect. Figure 3.3 shows the multi phase microstructure of TRIP steel. Figure 3.3: Microstructure of TRIP steel [8]. Martensitic (MS) Steel MS steels are mainly of a martensitic microstructure but contain small amounts of ferrite and bainite. During heat treatment the steel is rapidly cooled transforming austenite into martensite. This gives a very high tensile strength since martensite produces a very hard material, but the drawback is this also gives a low formability. In order to overcome this low formability further processing such as heat treatments must be undertaken. [11] 3.1.9 High Strength Interstitial Free (HS-IF) Steels HSIF steels are strengthened through the addition of microalloying elements. Commonly used alloying elements include P, B, Si, Mn, Ti, N. The combinations in which the microalloying elements are used have an effect on the properties of resultant steel allowing a range of requirements to be met. HSIF steels can produce nearly twice the potential yield strength as conventional IF steels, although there is a reduction in formability. 3.2 Microalloying Elements 3.2.1 Carbon Carbon is one of the most important interstitial elements within steel, giving very different mechanical properties as its percentage content is altered and therefore must be studied in depth. Carbon is an element commonly found in automotive steels due to its high strength properties. Although adding carbon increases strength, it also affects the formability, i.e. its deep drawability. A set of experiments were carried out to determine the effect of carbon content within steel. When analysing the tensile test results it was noted that the ultimate tensile strength, the proof stress and the yield stress all increased as the amount of carbon increased in the steel. The plastic region as well as the general elongation of the steel under tensile stress decreased as the carbon content increased. These are significant changes in the mechanical properties. Hardness and Tensile strength increase as carbon content approaches 0.85% C as shown in figure 3.4. The elongation percentage decreases as the carbon content increases. This suggests that the more carbon present in the material, the stronger and less ductile it becomes. Figure 3.4: Affect of Carbon content in Steel Yield Strength Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon molecules fit into the interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-centred cubic arrangement of the iron molecules. The interstitial carbons make it more difficult for any dislocation to occur as it reduces mobility. This has a hardening effect on the metal. Phase diagram Using the phase diagram one can understand why the properties of steels change with differing carbon content. Figure 3.5: Phase Diagram The gamma phase, relates to an Austenite range which has a Face Centred Cubic (FCC) structure. The alpha phase relates to a ferritic Body Centered Cubic crystal structure. Ferrite is found extensively in automotive steels, its BCC structure is much less dense than the FCC of austenite which makes it easily formable and therefore relatively cheap to manufacture. Fe3C refers to cementite and the mixture of alpha (ferrite) + cementite is called pearlite. On the phase diagram steels only apply up to about 1.4% carbon. The eutectoid point is at 723 degrees and is where there are three phases in equilibrium. The eutectoid composition is Fe-0.83%C. The reaction that happens at the eutectoid point is: austenite > ferrite + cementite gamma > alpha + Fe3C High carbon content means a greater precense of austenite, whereas low carbon content will give less austenite and a more ferritic microstructure. The affect of these differing microstructures is reflected in their mechanical properties. This is because Ferrite is soft and ductile and Cementite is hard and brittle. It can be seen by looking at figure 3.5 that as the carbon content is increased, strength increases. This relationship occurs up to the eutectoid point after which it starts to reduce. This where cementite grain-boundaries are created. The figure below shows how the varying content of carbon in steel affects its properties and suitability for different applications. Figure 3.6 Carbon Steel Applications Lever rule The lever rule can be used to calculate expected proportions of the phases present in each of the tested carbon steel specimens. These values can then be compared to the values obtained through testing. Figure 3.7 Lever Rule Calculations: a = Ferrite a + Fe3C = Pearlite 0.1wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen: % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.1)   Ã‚   = 0.897   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.1- 0.02)    = 0.103   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8- 0.02) 0.4wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen: % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.4)   Ã‚   = 0.513   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.4- 0.02)    = 0.487   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (0.8- 0.02) 0.8wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen: % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.8)    = 0   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.8- 0.02)   = 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (0.8- 0.02) These results suggest that as the carbon content increases the pearlite to ferrite ratio also increases. So the ratio of Pearlite to ferrite increases as carbon content is increased the material is made harder, stronger and more brittle but less ductile. These results obtained using the lever rule support the results obtained from the tensile test, showing the steel with the highest carbon content to be the least ductile and most brittle. The results are also supported by the findings from the hardness test which shows the steel with the highest carbon content to be the hardest. 3.2.2 Titanium The addition of Titanium to IFHS steels is particularly useful in the manufacturing of strip steels where good drawability is a requirement. The addition of Ti or Nb results in a lower Yield Strength/Tensile Strength ratio giving an increased formability. This can be seen in figure 3.8. When Titanium reacts with Carbon and Nitrogen it forms TiC and TiN, these precipitates work to delay recrystallisation of austenite, thus refining the grains to a favourable smaller size [12]. Figure 3.8: The effect of Titanium and Niobium on Yield Srength/UTS ratio [12] Titanium precipitates exist within steels and these affect the mechanical properties. TiN precipitates help to promote recrystallisation and encourage the {111} texture. TiS precipitates are commonly found in the austenite region as well as Ti4C2S2, Ti4C2S2 is formed by reacting with Carbon and in the highest regions of the austenite range there is little to no Carbon. These conditions are created at very high temperatures similar to those during hot rolling processes. This leaves the steel highly formable and suitable for deep drawability application such as car body panels. It is very difficult however to form Ti4C2S2 as it is less stable than TiS, although it can be encouraged through specific heat treatment processes. [13] 3.2.3 Vanadium Titanium is commonly added with Niobium to steels to increase formability through precipitation. However these additions can result in a retardation of recrystallisation meaning a higher temperature or longer soaking time is required for recyrstallisation to occur. Vanadium offers a replacement to Niobium in the form of carbides and nitrides, VC and VN, which does not cause such a drastic retardation of recyrstallisation. This is attractive to manufacturers as lower temperatures and shorter processing time during annealing are more cost effective. The effectiveness of Vandium in essentially lowering the recrystallisation temperature is shown in Figure 3.9. Figure 3.9: The effect of Ti + Nb, Ti + V and V stabilised steels on the Temperature for Complete Recrystallisation in 30 Seconds [44]. Figure 3.9 shows that the V only stabilised steel recrystallises at a lower temperature than the TiV and TiNb steels. 3.2.4 Sulphur Sulphur is found in all steels including Interstitial Free High Strength Steels. It acts as an interstitial elements and other elements to form precipitates such as TiS, MnS and Ti4C2S2. These precipitates have different effects on the mechanical properties of the material. In particular the precipitation of carbosulphides is beneficial to the steel as this causes the steel to form in the austenite range and helps to reduce the TiC formation which could occur during heat treatment processing and cause the material to become less likely to form the {111} texture.[13] Promoting Ti4C2S2 therefore encourages the formation of the favourable {111} texture, increasing the formability of the material. In order for Ti4C2S2 to develop, Sulphur, Carbon and Titanium must all be present, and processed in such a way as to form a reaction, which can difficult. 3.2.5 Niobium Niobium if found extensively in IFHS Steels reacting with carbon to form carbides such as NbC. Solute Niobium can be used to segregate austenite and ferrite grain boundaries and increase the strength of the austenite region [14]. As Niobium content increases the r-value decreases as well as the ductility. Generally Nb content is minimised as much as possible as the positive effect it has on strength in the austenite region is relatively small and is outweighed by the negative effect it has on ductility. Boron can be used instead of Niobium as it has a much greater effect on strength than Niobium. This can be seen in figure 3.9 Figure 3.9: Average Flow Stress vs. Temperature for B, C, and Nb and Mo solutes in steel [15]. 3.2.6 Phosphorus Phosphorus, P, is a common alloy of IFHS steel, offering increases in strength through solid solution hardening. Adding Phosphorus can also have a direct effect on the grains within a structure by increasing the Hall-Petch slope (described below). Adding P however can have a negative effect on the brittleness of the material. This can be particularly problematic during the cold working process where brittle fracture is a distinct possibility. The Hall-Petch relationship says that as the grain size decreases the yield strength of a material increases. This is due to the dislocations piling up at grain boundaries, which act as barriers to dislocation movement at low temperatures. If the grain size is large, then a high number of dislocations will pile up at the edge of the slip plane. When the stress exceeds a critical value the dislocations cross the boundary. So the larger the grain size, the lower the applied stress required to reach this critical stress at the grain boundary, meaning the larger the grain size, the lower the yield stress due to easier dislocation movement. This is true down to a grain size of 100nm. Below this size the yield strength remains constant or starts to decrease. This is effect is called the reverse Hall-Petch effect. Phosphorus along with Silicon and Manganese are added via solid solution strengthening to strengthen steel allowing for a thinner sheet of metal to be used for car body panels, and thus reducing the weight. Phosphorus is the most effective out of the three elements in terms of cost and strengthening effect. This can be seen below in figure 3.11 where the effects of P and S additions are compared. Figure 3.11: Comparison of Stress vs. Temperature between Phosphorus and Silicon microalloyed Steels [16]. Phosphorus is also found in the form of FeTiP precipitates. These precipitates have a negative affect on strength and drawability. The effects of these precipitates are greater in batch annealed steels than in continuous steels. This is due to the long soaking times required in batch annealing which provides optimum conditions and sufficient time for these precipitates to form [17]. 3.2.7 Manganese Manganese is added through solid solution strengthening to IFHS steels in a low concentration in order to react with the Sulphur to produce MnS precipitates. These MnS precipitates act to refine grain structure during processing when there is a transformation in phase between austenite and ferrite. Mn is to strengthen steels through solid solution strengthening. The effect of Mn is relatively small in the austenite range but compared to the ferrite range. This is due to a difference in Mn solubility between the austenite and ferrite ranges. Where Mn in ferrite is 10wt% higher than in austenite [18] Mn acts to stabilize the austenite region and slows down the rate of austenite transformation and also the temperature at which the transformation takes place. This lowering of transformation temperature between austenite and ferrite promotes finer grains through grain refinement. Mn can be found in oxide and sulphide forms as well as combinations of the two, oxysulphides. These oxides and sulphides act to deoxidise and desulphurise the steel. When in sulphide form, MnS helps to reduce embrittlement of steel without reducing hardness. When mixed with common impurities such as Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, CaO, CaS and FeS an increase in hardness and strength occurs [19]. When in the oxide form, MnO at the surface acts a barrier layer to prevent surface oxidisation and corrosion. 3.2.8 Silicon Silicon is a useful element and is used to increase the strength through solid solution strengthening, although there is a compromise as increasing Silicon content decreases ductility. Silicon is also found in oxide form, as silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide is found with Manganese Oxide or as Silicomanganese to give a strong oxygen stabilisation and prevent corrosion of steel. [20]. 3.2.9 Aluminium Aluminium is used to deoxidise steel by reacting with oxygen within the steel to form Al2O3. These Aluminium Oxides are later removed leaving an oxygen free steel. However the low density of Aluminium means that oxidisation could occur at the steel interface resulting in corrosion. Aluminium content can have a negative effect on formability. This is due to the precipitation of AlN during recrystallisation preventing the {111} development and thus preventing the formation of finer grains. So minimising the amount of AlN in solid solution results in higher formability. A more stable alternative to AlN which is commonly used in IFHS steels is TiN. 3.3 Hardening and processing There are many different compositions of steel which offer various advantageous properties. The main reason for altering composition or alloying is to strengthen the material. This can be done in several ways; 3.3.1 Precipitation strengthening This process uses heat treatment to raise the yield strength of a material. As temperature changes during heat treatment processing, fine particles are produced due to differing melting points of impurities. These fine particles impede dislocation movement. This in turn reduces the ductility and plasticity of the material and increases its hardness. 3.2.2 Solid – solution strengthening Solid solution strengthening is a form of alloying. It is a commonly used technique to improve the strength of a material. Atoms of the alloying element are added to the crystal lattice of the base metal via diffusion. There are two ways in which this can occur, depending on the size of the alloying alloying element. These are via substitutional solid solution, and interstitial solid solution. Substitutional solid solution This takes place when the sizes of the alloying atoms are equal in size to the base atoms, (Differing in size by no more than 15% according to the Hume-Rothery rules) The alloying atoms replace the solvent atoms and assume their lattice positions. The solute atoms can produce a slight distortion of the crystal lattice, due to the size variation. The amount of distortion increases with the size of the solute atom. This distortion has an effect on microstructural properties. The formation of slip planes is altered making dislocation movement more difficult, meaning a higher stress is required to move the dislocations. This gives the material a higher strength. A generalisation associated with substitution is that large substitutional atoms put the structure under compressive stress, and small substitutional atoms give tensile stress. Interstitial solid solution This occurs when the alloying atoms are much smaller than the base atoms. The alloying atoms fit into spaces within the crystal lattice. This is the case with carbon in steel, where carbon is a solute in the iron solvent lattice. The carbon atoms are less than half the size of the iron atoms so an interstitial solid solution forms. 3.3.3 Processing The final properties of steel are greatly affected by the manner in which it is first made and then processed. Typical processes include steel making, casting, hot and cold rolling and annealing. Each individual process has a distinct affect on the properties of the steel. To make the steel free from interstitial elements, Ti and Nb are often added to react with interstitials after a process called vacuum degassing. Vacuum degassing is the name given to the process where a metal is melted within a vacuum and the gasses are evaporated out. Hot and cold rolling Hot rolling is the first process to take place after steel making. After steel has been cast into uniform slabs or billets it is the rolled under a high temperature to reduce its cross sectional thickness. The hot rolling process is undertaken at a temperature above that at which recrystallisation occurs. Hot rolling reduces allows recrysallisation to occur during processing (dynamic recrystallisation) and the material is left stress free due the new grain nucleation and equiaxed grains. Effect of hot working on microstructure: Hot working occurs at high temperatures, this means that there is often enough thermal energy present for recrsytallisation to occur during deformation. This is called dynamic recrystallisation and it occurs with most metals, apart from aluminium. Recrystallisation occurs during the working process and also as the metal is cooling. Dynamic recrystallisation occurs by new grains nucleating at existing grain boundaries. The amount of recyrstallisation depends on several factors. It depends on the strain rate, temperature and amount of strain on the metal. Generally, as strain within the metal increases, so does the amount of recrystallisation. Cold working is when steel is plastically deformed below its recrystallisation temperature. This process increases the yield strength due to the plastic deformation causing slight defects within the microstructure of the metal. These defects make it difficult for slip planes to move. The grain size of the metal is also reduced, making the material harder through a process called Hall petch hardening. Hall Petch hardening, also known as grain boundary strengthening, increases materials strength by altering the grain size. This is because grain boundaries act as barriers to dislocation movement. So altering the grain size, through hot and cold rolling at various temperatures and rates will have an effect on dislocation movement and yield strength. Cold working will increase the strength of the metal by making it increasingly difficult for slip to occur. However as more and more of the larger grains split to form smaller grains the ductility is greatly reduced as the material hardens. Eventually fracture would occur. To avoid this, the material is annealed. Cold working occurs at a temperature below 0.4 of the metals melting point. Some of the energy created by the process is expelled as heat but some energy is stored within the structure putting it into a high energy state. The energy is stored within the grain boundaries of the deformed crystals and within the stress fields of the dislocations created through the plastic deformation. The structure is highly stressed after cold working and would prefer to return to its former low energy state. It is howeve