Discuss Shakespeares dramatic technique in Act one scenes 1 to 7 Essay Example for Free

Discuss Shakespeares dramatic technique in Act one scenes 1 to 7 Essay The chief character of the play is Macbeth. He is first of all Thane of Glamis and then inherits the title thane of Cawdor from an executed traitor. Instigated by a prophecy from the Witches that he will become king, and urged on by his wife, he murders King Duncan, and has himself proclaimed king. To secure his position, he is driven to commit further criminal acts, and plunges his country into civil war. After he is killed in battle by Macduff he is described as a dead butcher. The first scene is set on the moor that is bleak and desolate. This scene is one of desolation and devastation. The desolate countryside metaphorically separates the humans from the Witches who are used to open the play to introduce the idea of fate and destiny. From the stage directions, the battlefield creates a scene of death, carnage and destruction in line 4, when the battles lost and won and line 12 and 13, fair is foul and foul is fair a paradox is offered. How can fair be foul? How a battle be lost and won? The Witches chant in rhyming couplets and their speech is deliberately equivocal to create confusion in the mortals, as it is open t interpretation. He rhyming couplets give the effect of an incantation, while the thunder and lightning echo the noise of the battle. Similarly strange is thepaaradox that closes the scene: contained within it is the oxymoron, fair is foul, and foul is fair, a paradoxical idea that the Witches are able to transform what is good into evil, and make what is evil appear virtuous. These are also the first words spoken in the play by Macbeth, the echo establishes an unconscious contact with the Witches and is dramatically effective. We discover that the Witches are on the moor to meet with Macbeth. They seem to know where Macbeth will be. Once again they show that they can foretell the future. What can Macbeth the plays eponymous hero have to do with these abnormal, weird woman who look not like thinhabitants of earth? How does he fit into their plans? The opening scene heightens the audiences expectations, as Macbeth will soon appear on stage, the audience will try and establish exactly why the Witches hope t meet him. Witches held great significance for a Jacobean audience who believed in witchcraft. Witches were the objects of morbid and fevered fascination during this era. The Jacobeans were afraid and superstitious. They suspected that the Witches were credited with powers and could predict the future, fly, cause fogs and tempests, bring on night in daytime, kill animals and curse people, with fatal diseases as well as induce nightmares. By the use of this technique, Shakespeare knew that he would get his audiences attention with the opening scene. Although brief, this scene sets the supernatural atmosphere of the play, which is central to its dramatic action. In scene two, Shakespeare cleverly moves the scene to establish a different mood when introducing the humans. The seething battlefield replaces the moor, foul thunder is replaced by the sound of the military alarum and the humans replace the Witches. In this scene we meet Duncan, the King of Scotland, and his sons, Donalbain and Malcolm. Duncans supremacy is instantly established for he is the first to speak. They receive a report of the battle fought against the King of Norway and Macdonwald, the thane of Cawdor who has proved disloyal to Duncan. From the report he audience learns about the heroism and bravery of one of the King Duncans generals, Macbeth. Shakespeare continues to build suspense as he introduces the humans. The audience are also introduced to evil in man and the evil in warfare. The playwrights use of language helps to bring the battle to life and emphasises Macbeths importance. Dynamic verbs like, smokd, brandishd and unseamd suggest Macbeths skills and courage as his sword smokd with bloody execution. Once again we hear about Macbeth before we see him. Hw=e is spoken of in glowing terms and he becomes a hero in the eyes of the audience. Though he is referred to as a worthy gentlemen, there is still the memory that his name is connected with the Witches. Brave Macbeth kills Macdonwald by carving out his passage till he unseemd him from the nave to the chops with his brandishd steel that smokd with bloody execution. Part of this description highlights Macbeths bravery and valour, but the captains description of Macbeths unseeming of Macdonwald can be interpreted in different ways. Shakespeare intentionally paints an ambiguous picture of Macbeth. Macbeth, however, is still not satisfied until he had fixd [Macdonwalds] head upon the battlements. The decapitation of Macdonwald would support a more negative reading of Macbeth as oppose to his courageous behaviour. Scene two concludes with an ironic note as Macbeth is rewarded with the title of Thane of Cawdor which has been taken from that most disloyal traitor and given to Macbeth, who will prove to be more treacherous: No more than Thane of Cawdor shall deceive, Our bosom interest. Go pronounce his death, And with his former title greet Macbeth. The audience will realise that to make Macbeth Thane of Cawdor is a great mistake. We see Macbeth, the loyal subject and great hero who fought for good, change and become corrupt, and gradually deteriorate into a vicious tyrant. At the start of scene three, we meet the Witches once again in foul weather and we begin to witness their spiteful destructive nature. One sister has been killing swine while another has possession of a pilots thumb. The other Witch punishes a sailors wife by conjuring up a storm, therefore getting at her husband. From this the audience learns that the powers the Witches carry are limited. They cannot kill, but are able to create a climate for evil to flourish. Though his bark cannot be lost Yet it shall be tempest-tossd. The Witches curse on the sailor can be read as a prediction of Macbeths future. We are shown that the Witches are determined to make people suffer. They torment the sailor and drain him dry as hay. They deny him sleep at night and in the day. They ensure that he shall live a man forbid. However, Macbeth can be destroyed because the forces of veil are present within him. He alone causes chaos in the world by destroying the natural order when he deliberately choose the path of evil. The ship is a metaphor for the state of Scotland which is going to tempest tossd when Macbeth becomes king. A drum beats and Macbeth makes an entrance. We finally meet him and it is significant that his first appearance is with the Witches on the moor. This represents his connection with evil. His paradoxical word So foul and fair a day I have not seen arrests us because it replicates those of the Witches. This once again draws inferences between Macbeth and evil. This could suggest that the Witches have control over Macbeth, or that the hags are in some way similar to him. The appearance of the Witches like their speeches is equivocal. It is Banquo, who is used now as a dramatic device, who first comments on the bizarre appearance of the Witches. They look not like thinhabitants oth earth, and yet are ont and they appear to be women though they have beards. Banquo is calm and is looking for a reasonable explanation to why the Witches are on the moor, whilst Macbeth is impatient and wants an immediate answer to why the Witches have come with such prophetic greetings. The Witches prophesise that Macbeth, Thane of Glamis will become Thane of Cawdor and king hereafter, and that Banquo will have kings. Part of the prophecy is immediately fulfilled when a messenger announces that Duncan, King of Scotland has promoted Macbeth Thane of Cawdor. We the audience realise, that from the previous scene, Macbeth with his courage and bravery, and not the Witches powers, has won him the title Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is rapt withal and becomes lost in his thoughts, as the Witches have articulated his secret desire of killing the King. His mind has been corrupted and he wants glory for himself. Shakespeare shows how evil can control what is good in Macbeth. Macbeth is torn between the forces of good and evil and he believes that he cannot be king unless evil wins over good. Macbeth reveals a disturbed mind, when he speaks his own thoughts aloud in a soliloquy, as murder is in his mind. His first thought is to leave everything to chance: If chance will have me king, why chance may crown me, Without my stir Macbeth has asked Ross and Angus, the messengers, why they dress [him] in borrowd robes- why they call him by the name of Cawdor, when Cawdor lives. By the end of the scene Macbeth is contemplating borrowing the kings robes. The reference to clothing in this scene is symbolic. The imagery of clothing indicates status, prestige and symbolises a persons title. By using the imagery of clothing, Shakespeare is trying to show that if you wear someone elses clothes they may feel uncomfortable and they may cleave not to their mould because they are borrowd. Therefore if Macbeth wears the robes of the kingship they will cleave not to [his] mould as he is not worthy of the kings throne. When the Witches depart in this scene, Macbeth orders them to, Stay, you imperfect speakers tell me more. Macbeths curiosity has got the better of him and his demand of the Witches indicates his obsessive interest with these weird women and their prophecies. The Witches vanish into the air as they do not receive orders from mortals and will not be dictated to. The source and purpose of their evil remains a mystery to the audience. Shakespeare metaphorically compares the disappearance of the Witches to bubbles. Macbeths life can also be represented as a bubble, as the honour, love, obedience and troops of old friends that he has will soon disappear under the wishes they had stayd. Ross and Angus enter, they are used as dramatic devices to convey to Macbeth the Kings decision to reward Macbeth with the title Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo are both shocked as the devil has spoken the truth. Macbeth is already snared by the Witches prophecies, as he believes that, The greatest is behind On the other hand, Banquo can see through the trickery of the Witches. He is sceptical and can see through Macbeths motives in asking him whether he hopes his heirs will become kings. Banquo tries to warm Macbeth against the instruments of darkness. He tries to convince Macbeth that the Witches tell simple truths that are easy to believe, so that when they want to deceive people with more important matters they will also be believed. And often times, to win us to our harm, The instruments of darkness tell us truths, Win us with honest trifles, to betrays In deepest consequence. Banquo is portrayed b by Shakespeare in a positive light, as he does not make him an accomplice in Duncans murder. The stage directions show that Macbeth turns aside. This informs the audience that he is talking to himself. This symbolises Macbeth turning away from the other characters in the play as well as the path to righteousness. Shakespeare uses dramatic language to emphasise Macbeths horror. His seated heart knock at his ribs and his hair is unfixed. The scene concludes with Macbeth and Banquo following Ross and Angus to meet the king. The audience are filled with a sense of apprehension and anticipation. One question remains: how will Macbeth get the crown? Scene four opens with a focus on treachery and betrayal. King Duncan hears his son, Malcolm, relate how the treacherous Cawdor has been executed. Also in this scene Duncan reveals his lack of knowledge regarding his own thanes. He exposes a very human weakness-one which lies at the heart of the play- the difficulty of working out who is loyal and who is pretyending loyalty: Theres no art to find the Minds construction in the face. It seems likely that there is an implicit criticism of Duncan here: a good King should be able to assess the loyalty of all his servants. Duncans failure to do so reveals his limitation as a monarch- one who is taken in by appearances. Dramatic irony is introduced where Duncan announces that Cawdor was a Kinsman in whom he had absolute trust. Macbeths betrayal will replicate that of Cawdors. When Macbeth and Banquo enter, Duncan immediately singles out Macbth for praise, oworthiest cousin. The superlative worthiest subtly reveals that Macbeth is yet another thane in whom Duncan has absolute trust. Macbeth is the most dangerous of the potential traitors because he is closest to the king. Scene four is the only time we see Macbeth and Duncan together and Shakespeare contrasts the forces of good and evil. Macbeths deceit and hypocrisy is shown in this scene when he praises King Duncan and promises to honour him with loyalty. He convinces Duncan that servicing your highness will be its own reward. Macbeth is a hypocrite because in the previous scene he has contemplated the murder of Duncan. Duncan ironically comments that he has started to metaphorically plant Macbeth, meaning that he will make sure that Macbeth grows greater and stronger as a reward for his services. This is ironic because what is growing in Macbeth is the seed of ambition to be King himself. Shakespeare deliberately plants an obstacle in Macbeths path when Duncan announces that his eldest son, Malcolm, is to succeed him as king. Macbeth now sees Malcolm as an obstacle between himself and the throne which he must fall down or else oer leap. Shakespeare uses the euphemism that Malcolm is a step he must oer leap, in order to disguise the realisation that Malcolm must be eradicated. In an aside, symbolically turning his back on the King, Macbeth reveals to the audience, and articulates for the first time his black and deep desires. He invokes the powers of darkness to hide [their] fires. At the beginning of scene five, we see that Macbeth and his dearest partner of greatness, Lady Macbeth, have a very close relationship. This is a contrast to how distant they become later on in the play when Macbeths fiend-like queen is innocent of the knowledge. She is innocent of the knowledge as Macbeth does not confide about his plans to kill Banquo, and she shows ignorance of Macbeths murder of Macduffs family. She asks in her rambling state where the Thane of Fifes wife is now. Macbeths lack of sorrow when he hears of his wifes death is also indicative of how they have drifted apart. In all the public scenes in the play she acts like the innocent flower; in the private scenes we see the serpent undert. It is suggested that she commits suicide as she has become lonely and rather isolated. Lady Macbeth does not live up to the expectation of a typical Jacobean/Elizabethan woman. She wants the spirits the spirits to unsex her so that she can be tough and strong. Lady Macbeth uses strong imperatives and determined language that is brutal and violent. This is because she is delighted with her husbands letter and shows determination that he will become king. The letter form Macbeth describes the Witches appearances, their prophecies-in particular that which promises the throne to Macbeth- but does not mention King Duncans announcement of his heir; the audience can therefore, assume that this letter was written immediately after the events which occur in the third scene. Although Lady Macbeth knows that her husband is ambitious, she is aware that he is too full othe milk of human kindness. She says that ruthlessness is an illness that Macbeth does not have. This is not a true portrayal of Macbeth, because from the previous scenes and throughout the play we see that Macbeth is not too full othe milk of human kindness but lacks it. Perhaps she is comparing Macbeth to herself and is saying that Macbeth is not as ambitious as she is. Lady Macbeth under estimates the powers of her conscience. She see her conscience as her weakness, not realising until after Duncans murder how she will pour[her] spirits in his ear. She has also decided that nothing will stand between him (or her?) and the golden crown ( a metonym for the throne). Lady Macbeth greets her husband like the Witches, which subconsciously links her to evil and believes that her call to the murdering ministers has been answered. She feels now the future in the instant and that she is beyond this ignorant present. This is ironic as Lady Macbeth is still being ignorant. Lady Macbeths confidence is a contrast to Macbeths uncertainty. She advises him to look like the innocent flower but be the serpent undert and to only look up clear. She is in control of their relationship and tries to help Macbeth find the necessary determination to do the deed. Though Lady Macbeth appears to be confident, she uses euphemisms when talking to Macbeth about the nights great business. At this point in the play, Macbeth has been tempted to commit regicide, however he has tried to resist temptation. Macbeths resistance, however, is not vigorous enough to stand up to his wifes ability to manipulate him. The scene closes dramatically with Lady Macbeth emphatic affirmation that Duncans fate rests in her hands- leave all the rest to me. Scene six sees King Duncan arriving at Macbeths castle, he and Banquo talk about how pleasant a place it is to visit. They comment that the air recommends itself and is delicate. This is ironic in view of Lady Macbeths words in the previous scene, and even more so when compared with that of the Witches say about the fog and filthy air surrounding their evil deeds. Duncan also says that he is grateful for the love which is shown to him. Here again, Shakespeare uses dramatic irony. The idea that Duncan feels safe and loved in the surroundings is ironic as this will be the scene of his murder. This creates a sense of anticipation for the audience. It shows Duncans naivety, as he keeps full trust in Macbeth and his fair and noble hostess. We are presented in this scene with images of tranquillity and the words host and guest are repeated. At the beginning of scene seven, we once again see the struggle between the forces of good and evil. Macbeth cannot make up his mind whether to kill Duncan and he wrestles with his conscience in his soliloquy. He knows that the murder would be wrong and would he would end up paying the price for his crime, but he has vaulting ambition that is very persuasive to his conscience. Though Macbeth is driven by his vaulting ambition he redeems himself and will proceed no further in this business, as Duncans murder will be like angels, trumpet-tongud and heaven would be outraged. The verb will shows Macbeths determination to keep his soul. Toward the end of his soliloquy Macbeth compares his excessive ambition to a horse that tries to jump too high and fall on the other side of the fence. Within the soliloquy Macbeths thoughts seem to be fragmented, this is shown by the use of many full stops. Lady Macbeth verbally assaults her husband using violent language that becomes heightened. She accuses him of being a coward and questions his manhood: when you durst do it, she says, then you were a man. She is forceful in her language and she conjures up images of horror. She knows, How tendertis love the babe that milks me: I would, While it was smiling in my face, Have pluckd my nipple from boneless gums, and dashd the brains out Lady Macbeth seems to have been granted her earlier wish to the evil spirits to Fill me from the crown to the toe top-full Of direst cruelty. Macbeths earlier decision not to kill Duncan crumbles under the scornful attack of his wife, especially when his bravery is questioned. However, he is still worried bout what will happen to then if they should fail. Shakespeare cleverly ends the scene with rhyming couplets. Away, and mock the time with fairest show, False face must hide what the false heart doth know. The rhyming couplets symbolise their connection with the Witches and evil as they complete their preparations for murder. The audience waits in anticipation. Throughout Act one Shakespeare creates an atmosphere of tension by exploring the theme of evil against good. Symbolism is used to emphasise this theme. Dramatic irony, dramatic language and strong descriptive scenes also help to build up an atmosphere of tension.

Autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder Autism spectrum disorder Introduction Autism is an overall term which is used to describe a group of complicated brain developmental disorder which is also called pervasive developmental disorder. There are other pervasive developmental disorders which include pervasive developmental disorder which is not yet specified, Asperngers syndrome, Rett syndrome, and childhood disintegrative disorder. This group of disorders is collectively referred to as Autism spectrum disorders (Morgan, Jones Jordan, 2001). Prevalence rate The prevalence rate of the disorder is estimated to be about 0.7% among children making it more prevalent than child cancer, juvenile diabetes, and pediatric AIDS. It is reported that around 1.5 millions of persons living in the United States and other numerous millions of people around the world are suffering from autism. The United States government figures show that the prevalence of autism among its population has been rising every year. The reason for the increase has not been found, but improved diagnosis and environmental influence are considered to be the cause for the increased awareness. Male children have been reported to be more prone to the disorder as compared to the female children and are diagnosed with the condition quite frequently. In the United States it is estimated that around 1% of the boys are diagnosed with the disorder (Ehlers Gillberg, 1993) Symptoms Every individual who is diagnosed with autism has unique signs which cannot be compared to that observed in another individual. This is so because autism is a combination of disorders, one persons condition can be very severe with the other person having a slight one. The commonly observed signs in individuals with autism include seizure disorders, gastrointestinal problems, mental retardation and illness. Explanations for the existence of these problems in individuals having autism are not known. It is possible to state that these additional conditions observed is evidence of various forms of autism with each being caused by different factors (Haley, 2006). Although the conditions listed above are quite commonly observed in individuals having autism as compared to those people who do not have autism, they are not observed in everybody suffering from autism. The other symptoms observed include social and communication symptoms, sensory and motor symptoms, and personality differences (Rudy, 2009).Autistic spectrum disorders have a common social interactions, communication, and imagination which are linked to stiff, continual prototype of manners. It usually begins at birth or at the fist three years of life, but can also start later on during the childs life. The triad of symptoms can be noticed at all levels of intelligence and can be observed alone or accompanied with some other physical or even psychological disorder (Editorials. 2009) Causes The main cause of autism is not yet established with the researchers citing the main cause being idiopathic. Since the disorder has varying severity and the clinical signs associated with it, it is suggested that the condition has various causes (Novella, 2008). Researchers suspect a cocktail of factors which might be considered to cause autism and they include multiple genetic components which might cause autism alone or when combined with other environmental factors which are not yet determined (Wing Gould, 1979) The time at which the child might have got exposed to these factors is also significant, for example, before birth, during birth or even after the child is already born. Very few cases of autism can be associated with genetic disorders like Fragile X, Tuberous Sclerosis, and Angelmans syndrome. Exposure to environmental factors which are infectious like maternal rubella or cytomegalovirus, or chemicals like thalidomide or valporate at the time of pregnancy (Ehlers Gillberg, 1993) There is an increasing interest among researchers on the function of immune system in the control of autism. There have been suggestions that autism may involve inflammation in the central nervous tissues (Wing Potter, 2008). Animal studies have also produced evidence on how the immune system of the body can influence symptoms which are linked to autism. There have been organized autism talks which aim at increasing the level of awareness and also investigations of useful immunological facts to researchers who are not in that field and those within the field of autism at the community level (Haley, 2006). Previously, autism was believed to be caused by bad parenting as was proposed by Dr. Leo Kanner in 1943. Because the definitive causes of autism is not yet established, it has become clear that bad parenting is not one of the possible causes of the disorder. Dr. Bernard Rimland who founded the Autism Society of America and the Autism Research Institute enabled the medical community to appreciate that autism does not come about as a result of cold parents but from biological origin (Mauro, 2009) Reasons for the recent awareness According to the professionals in the field of child development in Britain, there has been increase in the number of children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorders. Dr. Kanner was the first person to characterize autism when he described it as a condition in a certain group of children with a strange pattern of behavior noticed after birth or before attaining the age of 30 months. He later referred to the condition as early infantile autism (Editorials. 2009) Many clinicians have a feeling that there has been an increase in the number cases of autism as compared to the past. Some current studies have showed high prevalence rates for autism. According to California health and human services agency report between the years 1987 to 1998, a period in which the research was done, there was rise in the number of individuals diagnosed with the disorder (Morgan, Jones Jordan 2001). Conclusion can therefore be made that the increase in the number of individuals reported with autistic spectrum disorders can be attributed to changes in referral patterns and in the methods of diagnosis, and the much knowledge of the different manifestations of the autistic conduct (Ownby, 2008).There might also be changes in the prevalence rates either locally and internationally with the cause not being known. Failure to carry out properly resourced prevalence studies, the condition of the disorder is likely to remain bleak (Mauro, 2009) Conclusion The evidence for the increase in the autistic spectrum is not yet clear because various researches has showed conflicting figures relating to the prevalence of the disorder. The condition still requires a lot of research work to shed light in its causes, prevalence rates and its management. References : Editorials (2009). Autistic spectrum disorders. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from: http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/312/7027/327 Ehlers, S. Gillberg, C. (1993). The epidemiology of Asperger syndrome: a total population Study,Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34 (8), pp. 1327-1350. Haley, B. (2006). Vaccines and the changing epidemiology of autism. Child Care Health Dev. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from: http://www.whale.to/a/autism_diagnosis.html Mauro, T. (2009). Autism Spectrum Disorders. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from: http://specialchildren.about.com/od/gettingadiagnosis/g/Autism.htm Morgan, H., Jones, H. Jordan R. (2001). A Guide to Services for Adults with Autistic Spectrum Disorders for Commissioners and Providers. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from: http://autism.bibliomaker.ch/BM_DIRECTORY/H/BM000001710/7723/JOR3.pdf` Novella, S. (2008). The Increase in Autism Diagnoses: Two Hypotheses. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from:http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/?p=95 Rudy, L. J. (2009). A Definition of Autism and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from:http://autism.about.com/od/autismterms/f/defautism.htm Ownby, M. H. (2008). Raising Autism Awareness. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from: http://autismaspergerssyndrome.suite101.com/article.cfm/raising_autism_awareness Wing, L. Potter, D. (2008). Notes on the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders. Retrieved on 15th December, 2009 from: http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=364a=2618 Wing, L. Gould, J. (1979). Severe impairments of social interaction: and associated abnormalities in children: epidemiology and classification Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9 (1), pp. 11-29.

Eating Christmas in the Kalahari | Essay

Eating Christmas in the Kalahari | Essay Eating Christmas in the Kalahari Abstract Richard Borshay Lee was a social anthropologist that had lived with and studied the southern Tswana tribe. In â€Å"Eating Christmas in the Kalahari† Richard Borshay Lee introduces us to some very useful techniques in social science. What he decided to do was take part in an ox Christmas festivity. Mr. Lee felt he had to give a gift because the tribal community thought he was a miser, this was due to the fact the Mr. Lee had been there for quite some time and never shared his food. Being Christmas and both sides believing in this spiritual holiday, he felt obligated to share. Ultimately, his beliefs does not coincide with the !Kung people and we witness the power of socializing agents. Even though Mr. Lee had lived with and was engaged in every part of the !Kung people’s lives, he was still an outsider and alien to the society. It seems after Mr. Lee decided to attend the ox Christmas festival, he felt it would be a nice gesture to buy an ox to eat at the celebration. Among the !Kungs, the slaughtering of an ox is a custom. After choosing the ox to bring to the festival, the Bushmen started complaining and calling the ox old and skinny. To Mr. Lee, the ox looked big, fat and perfect for the Christmas celebration and the reaction of the !Kung Bushmen people leave him very insulted. His feelings and how he perceived the Bushmen’s reaction was likely founded on his own culture, where people are supposed to appreciate other people’s generosity no matter the outcome. But to the Bushmen, giving an ox was no more than what they usually do every day, and was nothing special. After consulting with cultural experts, Mr. Lee discovers the native’s viewpoint. In the !kung’s culture, things such as gifts and generosity are appreciated. However, it is not easily shown and always behind closed doors. Their cultural belief is that it will cause more harm to praise any individual even for a job well done. They believe by boosting someone’s ego it will eventually swell his pride to the point where he may kill someone. The !Kung’s survival is based on their awareness of the environment around them and how people act and think in the society. This I think would be a good thing as long as people were not taken for granted. Why did the !kung people’s insult bother Mr. Lee so extensively? I feel the anthropologist thought he had gone through so much to choose, and buy the ox for the !Kungs just to be ridiculed for his efforts. Lee finally received the message of what the !Kungs were trying to put out, and this was the concept that there is some motive behind every gift and somehow, someway the gift will be repaid. However, I must disagree with this concept and disagree with the !Kungs. This is supported by the fact, every day I see many charitable acts, and the people that are giving, have no intention of receiving praise or anything in return. There are many cultural rules about gift giving in our society. Gifts in our society are given in celebrations and special occasions. Usually in our society, the amount spent on the gift is based on the rareness or the size of the event taking place. Mr. Lee’s views brought on by his own cultural beliefs, left him feeling inadequate and insulted. But to the !Kungs, it was an everyday occurrence and reaction. To understand the !kungs is to understand and accept people of different cultures. This is dually noted in the above paragraphs. The !Kungs who live in the Kalahari were raised quite differently than someone who grew up in the society we live in today. In accepting gifts in our country, we always say thank you and how much we appreciate it. This praise gives us a feeling of arrogance knowing that the receiver really likes our gift. In different cultures there are different guidelines. The people of the !kung tribe think badly of individuals that show arrogance. To eliminate these characteristics in the children, they were raised to mock and make fun of others while doing things such as hunting and viable activities. And by telling Mr. Lee that his ox was skinny and old, they were ultimately doing him a tremendous favor according to their cultural beliefs. As in contrast to our beliefs that characteristics such as bulling and mocking is very wrong. However sometimes in our society we see arrogance as a negative quality but it is not always discouraged in the same manner. Agents of Socialization was a strong influence in the article that Mr. Lee wrote. The feeling of being insulted only came from his own inadequacies and the way he was taught in his society. His status while being among the tribe was less than in his own society and also contributed to his feelings. His cultural values were very different than that of the !Kung people, and in time he came to understand and accept their attitudes learned as a social group. He realized that even though it was a celebration known to people of his culture, it could also sustain a part of the !Kung tribe. This is a documentation of another instance of how different societies of people distinguish themselves from one another with certain customs and differences, and how they conduct themselves socially. References Scavetta, Charlene (February 22, 2009). Eating Christmas in the Kalahari, Richard Borshay Lee. . retrieved 9/23/2014, from Athropology 1001 Web Site: http://scavettacharlene.blogspot.com/2009/02/eating-christmas-in-kalahari-richard.html ThatPresence ( December 2005 ). Eating Christmas in the Kalahari . retrieved 9/23/2014, from StudyMode.com Web Site: http://www.studymode.com/essays/Eating-Christmas-In-The-Kalahari-74594.html Ontaneda, Ana (February 22, 2009). Eating Christmas in the Kalahari . retrieved 9/23/2014, from anthropology Web Site: http://unam0ur.blogspot.com/2009/02/ana-ontaneda-february-22-2009-ant-1001.html Research into Truancy: Causes and Effects Research into Truancy: Causes and Effects Introductory orientation Truancy is about learners who have not been attending school regularly as required by the school, parents and even the authorities. Truant behavior is a problem for the individual, the family, the school and society in general. Free and compulsory education is recognized as a basic entitlement under international standards, including the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989) and the European Convention on Human Rights (1950). With the right to free education and the obligation corresponding to this right observed and enforced through a national emphasis on school attendance, The National Statistic Office (Malta) states that in the 2004/2005 scholastic year the figure for school absenteeism accounted for 7.7% of the total number of school days in the reference period or an overall absence rate of 9.2 absent days per pupil that for boys being 10.0 days per pupil and for girls 8.4 days per pupil. As a teacher this makes me fretful about students missing school as this can be associated with subsequent emotional and psychosocial problems in early adulthood and is a predictor of multiple problems (Fogelman and Hibbert, 1990). Truancy may have both short and long term effects on society. There is evidence that truancy is linked to delinquent behaviour and juvenile crime (Collins, 1998; Reid, 1999). According to Jones (1996), ‘Absenteeism is a sign of trouble that often leads to lower academic skills and grades, delinquency, and dropouts. Studies have shown that high school dropouts are twice as likely to be unemployed and on welfare, and overall, tend to be facing a more difficult life than their graduating counterparts. Jones (1996; p.128), All members who form part of any educational institution cannot allow these students to give up on themselves. We as a modern, fast developing society, we cannot afford to let them surrender. It is clearly far less expensive to educate them than pay for a lifetime of welfare and all of the deprivations that welfare represents. These are ominous issues, which imply that the number of students who skip school is rising and that school absenteeism is a new generations behaviour that is today a dramatic social phenomenon. This proposal drafts the intent to investigate and explore realities of how truancy manifests with Maltese youth and also explore the psychosocial world of truants in Maltese schools. Problem Analysis The Pre-Scientific Problem awareness As a supply teacher for these past five years, I have witnessed incidences of truancy in the period 2006 to 2009. One of the common truancy reducation measures used was to lock the school gates during lessons and breaks and open them after school hours (my personal exsperience). Despite the limited impact on truancy reducation, the approach of locking gates is still common and evident in some secondary schools. I found locked gates while visiting some of the schools. Gangsters, to control late coming and to stop learners from dodging classes, locked gates to prevent trespassing, sepecially. Exploring the problem Incidence and nature of truancy Malta Since 1946 education has been compulsory for all children between six to fourteen years and extended to the age of 16 by the Education Act (Malta) of 1971. Maltese law imposes a duty on parents to ensure that their children of compulsory school age receive appropriate education, whether through attendance at a state or independent school. If they fail to do so, without any reasonable excuse and if found guilty, they are liable to a fine not exceeding in previous currency one Maltese Lira (equivalent to â‚ ¬2.33) for each day during which the offence continues, unless the parent fails to give a good and sufficient explanation within three days from the date he or she receives a notice from the Director of Education (Malta Education Act 1988). From January 2001 up to December 2002 there were 8,903 arraignments before the local tribunals in connection with school absenteeism (Grech, 2002). This figure represents only the number of students who were absent from school without a valid reason on more than three occasions in the time frame of a month. It is a known fact that there are a number of students that systematically plan three days off from school each month, just for the sake that they use their monthly absence allowance and knowing that in this way their parents would not receive a citation. Surveys show that the overall absence rate between 25th September 2000 to 31st March 2001 stood at 10.5 days per pupil (NSO Malta, 2001). This figure reveals an increase of 5.2% over 1999/2000 scholastic year (NSO Malta, 2001). Thus it shows that during this period, 657,604 pupil days were lost to absenteeism and authorised absence due to sickness. Indeed, the Clark Report (2005) shows concern for the increase in unauthorised absenteeism with parental consent, particularly in state secondary schools which cater, in the main, for a student population coming from a working- class background. Family problems, psychological problems, illnesses, school phobia and bullying have, significantly, been indicated by the Clark focus group to be the topmost reasons contributing to school avoidance. Some Overseas Countries Most of the research conducted abroad seems to provide information regarding the nature and extent of truancy in secondary schools. Results of a study conducted at a school in London from 1985 to 1987 revealed that 70% of the sampled pupils admitted truanting during the three-year period (Stoll, 1990:22). In the study that involved nine secondary schools, 66% of the 765 fifth year pupils admitted truanting (ibid). Figures on truancy in 150 English secondary schools revealed that 31% of pupils in years 10 and 11 admitted that they played truant or skipped lessons (OKeefe Stoll, 1995:12). Gray and Jesson (1990:25) report about the major national survey results of truancy in English secondary schools. According to this study, 23% of all fifth year pupils were involved in truant behavior and they were less likely to stay on in full-time education. Furthermore, schools facing serious problems of truancy tend to be in the inner city rather than in other areas (ibid). on the other hand, Collins (1998:26) reports that absentee rates vary between schools in the London Education Authority. Munn and Johnstone (1992:4) found that out of a sample of 50 Scottish secondary schools, 18% of the pupils (11% in June and 7% in November) were classified as truants and were mostly form the senior years. These figures exclude truants within the school day, as â€Å"14 schools reported that they did not keep period attendance records† (ibid). Truancy has long been a subject for research in various parts of the USA. According to Nelson (1972:98), 64% of the 591 students surveyed identified themselves as class truants. Learners habitually play truant each day in Los Angeles, Pittsburg and Milwaukee (Black, 1996:33). Bos, Ruiters and Visscher (1992:393) found that the average rate of truancy in 36 schools in the four Dutch cities studied was 4.4% and that truancy increased with the level of the class in almost all schools. Some researchers further indicate that truancy does not necessarily mean missing the whole day of school but found that I could be in the form of missing a part of a day or particular lesson (Kilpartick, 1998:31; Reid, 1999:91). In a study conducted by Malan in South Africa (1972:144), 2,738 out of 69,908 pupils were identified by their teachers as truants. Masithela (Masithela, 1992:33) observed that learners tend to miss lessons during the first and second periods, as well as during the last give periods. The tendency of missing certain lessons towards the end of the school day shows that some form of â€Å"hidden truancy† is prevalent and that pupils can be marked present in the register but fail to attend all lessons (ibid:45). On the other hand, they may come late and be marked absent or be somewhere on the school premises not attending certain lessons or periods, but still be marked as being present on the class resisters. Factors associated with truancy Malta Truancy is about learners who have not been attending school regularly as required by the school, parents and even the authorities. Tyerman (1968) defines the term truant as the child who is absent from school purely on his or her own initiative. Gabb (1994) includes in his definition of truant, that a child who is absent with leave given by his or her parents, or who are actually kept at home by the parents. Hersov (cited in Gabb, 1994) goes still further, dividing from truants, ‘school phobics and ‘school refusers. King (2001) furthermore defines school refusal/school phobics as a difficulty to attend school due to emotional distress, especially anxiety and depression. Fenech (1991) (in an unpublished research) defines ‘absenteeism as ‘being away from lessons for any period of time and for reasons not considered as legitimate, with or without the parents knowledge (p.3). She goes on to include ‘physical presence without any attention being given to a lesson in progress [as well as] masked or selective truancy (ibid., p.3). Fenech (ad. lib.) refers to the latter as ‘skiving off specific lessons or disappearance after registration (p.3) remarking that a number of sources consider absenteeism and truancy synonymous. Sultana (1997), like Fenech (1991), defines absenteeism as ‘staying away from school for reasons not justified by the law (p. 355). However, she goes on to include other ‘less overt ways (ibid., p 355) such as what Willis (1977) calls participating in ‘informal mobility (ibid., p. 355). This includes not entering the class for lesson, intentionally staying in another class, leaving the class without permission, or staying in class without bothering to follow the lesson. Studies conducted abroad When seen from a psychological viewpoint, truancy may be symptomatic of learns who are insecure and have low academic achievement levels and low self-esteem. Lewis (1995:37) states that attendance difficulties my broadly result from a combination of â€Å"pull† and â€Å"push† factors. Pull factors are personal and social aspects that â€Å"pull† a learner out of school. The pull factors may be related to the psychological indices mentioned by Reid (2002:11), such as maladjustment, a lower general level of self-esteem and academic self concept, anxiety and lower career aspirations. Factors that â€Å"push† learners away from school include academic and classroom aspects such as inapproachability of the teaching staff, incomprehensible teaching style and inappropriate classroom management. Other factors relating to the school and the classroom include bullying, the curriculum, boring lessons (Reid, 1999:91), teachers humiliating remarks (Porteus, Clacherty, Mdiya, Pelo, Matsai, Qwabe and Donald 2000:11), poor record-keeping and school organization (Bimler Kirkland, 2001:90; Coldman, 1995:29). According to Pappas (1996:1), truancy is often symptomatic of family dysfunction, since the parents of truants tend to be permissive, undisciplined and unavailable. Some authors believe that truancy is associated with a poor socio-economic background, including poverty, poor housing and unemployment (Bell, Rosen and Dynlacht, 1994:204; Tyerman, 1958:222). Some researchers state that there is a link between truancy and delinquent behavior (Collins, 1998:38; Brown, 1998:298-299; Reid, 1999:25). Truancy differentiated from school phobia There is a need to distinguish between truancy and school phobia. The concept â€Å"school phobia† describes a learner who is unwilling to attend school and stays at home with the knowledge of parents (Wicks and Nelson, 2000:123). A learners problem often stats with a vague complaint or reluctance to attend school and progresses to total refusal to go to school. Blagg (1992:121) asserts that school phobia may be induced by fear-arousing aspects of school, such as fear of failure caused by anxiety about meeting the standards. Fear may also be related to worries about the health and welfare of parents (Blagg, 1992:123). In the other hand, a learner who plays truant misses the whole school day or lessons without the knowledge of parents or caregivers. Furthermore, a truant tends to be involved in various forms of anti social behavior (Blagg, 1992:121). Milner and Blyth (1999:18) acknowledge the difficulties involved in studying the prevalence and pattern of truancy and in comparing current and past school attendance or absence. The difficulties are partly compounded by the variations in the definition of truancy itself (Boyd, 1999:22; Gabb, 1997:2) and the multifaceted nature of truancy (Edward and Malcolm, 2001:1; Reid, 1999:17). The problems associated with studies on truancy should, however, not prevent further research from being conducted. Solutions should be found, or the cause at least eliminated, because truancy is regarded as a serious problem with socio-economic implications. A preliminary review of the literature reveals that truancy is a major problem form schools and society and a most powerful predictor of juvenile delinquent behavior (Van Petegem, 1994:272; Wiehe, 2000). Reid (2002:2) maintains that the amount of money spent on truancy reduction initiatives proves the extent of truancy. Statement of the problem Data on the extent and nature of truancy in schools are often based on information obtained from class registers. This information may be inadequate or almost incomplete and limits the understanding of the phenomenon, thus making it difficult to develop appropriate intervention strategies. More insight on how truancy manifests is needed to provide a base on which to suggest, plan and develop effective intervention strategies. Therefore, further research is needed to enable education officials, schools, parents and other professionals to manage learners with attendance difficulties more efficiently. This study serves to bridge the information gap regarding the nature of truancy and to provide a picture of the life world of truants in Secondary Schools. Aims of the Research The General Aim The aim would be to describe truancy in general as stated in the literature and to conduct an empirical study in order to determine how truancy behaviour manifests in secondary schools and what the life world of truants looks likes. The findings can then be used to inform and guide future practice. The Specific aim The aim of the study would be to gather information that will be used to guide the school (college) community namely the SMT, form teachers, subject teachers, guidance teachers and school councillors, youth workers in school and other stakeholders to help in the interventional approaches and procedures that can be used for reducing truancy. In order to realise the above aims, the following questions are set to direct the research: What is the extent and degree of truancy in terms of the frequency and number of learns involved? What are the patterns, type or nature of truancy? Where do truants go when not at school or in class? What measures are used to monitor and manage truancy? Research Method The study will comprise two methods, namely, a literature study and an empirical investigation. A study of the literature will derive information on studies about poor school attendance and procedures employed to mange or reduce truancy from books, research articles, journals and other resources. A quantitative research design will be used in the empirical investigation. This investigation aims to gather data by means of a questionnaire that will be given to learns in Form 1 and Form 2 in eight randomly selected schools, , incorporating two Junior Lyceums, two Area Secondary and two Church schools. A qualitative research design will be used with guidance teachers, counselors, youth workers, form teachers, Assistant Head of Schools and Heads of School currently working in schools. A focus group and interviews with Heads will help me to investigate what the School community is doing to combat truancy. Such data will be advantageous in that they are ‘the most adequate [tool] to capture how a person thinks of a particular domain (Goldsmiths Collage, n.d.). More over since a face to face rapport with the interviewee, it is induced to continue questioning the subject in order to confirm the hypothesis about his or her beliefs, seeking appraise any underlying meaning in the process. Demarcation of research Due to time constraints, the preset research is confined to then 8 randomly selected secondary schools in Malta. A list of all secondary schools was compiled to allow for the random selection of 8 schools, which will form part of this study. This sample was mainl cohosen on the basis of cost implicaitons and accessibility. Explanation of concepts In this section a number of concepts that are relevant to this research are defined. Truancy Reids (1999:1) asserts that the term ‘truancy is often misused and can be applied both generically and with a local meaning. In the different parts of Great Britain, truancy is known as ‘dodging, ‘skipping off, ‘mitching, ‘skiving, ‘bunking off and ‘going missing, respectively. Whitney (1994:49) defines truancy as ‘absence that has not been authorized by the school and where leave has not been given or approved. Another definition provided by Collins (1998:2), who states that truancy is about pupils who have been registed with a school but identified as not attending school when the law says they should. This definition includes absences from a particular lesson or lessons, known as ‘post-registation truancy (Gabbs, 1994:5; Stoll, 1990:23). Clark Report (2005) identify as truancy when a student is voluntarily absent or not attending school without their parents permission and often, awareness (Anglicare, Werribee Family Services 2000). Truancy is defined as unjustifiable or unexplained absence from school with attempts by the student to conceal the absenteeism. Usually the child avoids home when not at school and the parents are often unaware of the childs absence (Rollings, King, Tonge, Luk, Heyne, Ramsdell, Burdett Martin, 1999). The concept blanket truancy refers to absence from the whole school day, which is usually reflected on the class register, while post-registration truancy occurs when the learner is marked present but fails to turn up at a lesson or lessons (Stoll, 1990:23). In this research, the term ‘truancy is broadly defined as unauthorized absence from school. The definition is adopted with the assumption that absence with the knowledge and permission of the school and parents or guardians does not constitute truancy. Since the study seeks to explore the type of truancy as manifested at secondary schools, both concepts of truancy (blanket and post-registration) are relevant and will be investigated. A Truant A truant is a ‘child aged 6 17 years old who absents himself or herself form school without a legitimate reason and without permission of his or her parents or the school official (Schaefer and Millman, 1981: 335). For the purpose of this research, a truant refers to a learner who, after being registered at a school, absents himself or herself from school or lessons without a legitimate reson or permission from parents or the school official. The traditional or typical truant: Traditional truants tend to be isolated that come from an unsupportive home background, possibly with a tendency to be shy. It is likely that they will have a low self-concept, be introverted and be the citim of their social circumstances. The psychological truant: could be the school phobic (school refusal) case but more othen than this psychological truant miss school for psychological related factors such as illness, opsychomatric complaints, laziness, a fear of attending scholl for any reason (such as dislike of a teacher, a lesson, an impending confrontation or fear of bullying.) The Institutional truant: Institutional truants are more likely to indulge in ‘on the spur of the moment absences from lessons and to be selective about days or lessons to miss. Secondary School A school that admits or registers and educates learners in Form 1 Form 5 is known as a secondary school. Life World In this research, the term ‘life world refers to the psychological context this is made up of elements such as interpersonal aspects, the family, school and the broader community. According to this definition, the life world involves the personal and external world of the learner. The personal word refers to intrinsic factors. The external word is made up of the broader educational systems, the home environment and the community where the child spends his time when not at school. Relevant intervention strategies would be easier to suggest if the contextual issues related to the phenomenon under investigations are understood. Research Program The research comprises give chapters, as follows: CHAPTER 1 In this chapter, the background information in the seriousness and implication of truancy are discussed. The chapter also includes an analysis of the problem, the problem statement, aims of the study, description of the research method and definition of the concepts. CHAPTER 2 Chapter 2 entails a review of the literature on types of truancy and the causes of truancy or contributing factors in different countries, including in Malta. Different approaches that the various countries and schools use to manage truancy will also be discussed. CHAPTER 3 This chapter deals with research designs and methods. A discussion of the research problem, the aim of the empirical investigation, the research tool used in the study and the selection of the sample will be included. Details of the compilation and administration of questionnaires as well as an analysis of data will be presented. CHAPTER 4 In this chapter, the results of questionnaires will be presented. The results will be analyzed to find answers to the research questions. CHAPTER 5 The chapter entails a summary of the research finding, conclusions and recommendations. A summary of the results from the literature study and the limitation of the study will be included. Conclusion This chapter focuses on the background and analysis of the problem, as well as the aims of the study. An attempt will be made to explain the research method used, relevant concepts and planned programmes of the research. The next chapter will contain the review of the literature on the types of truancy, factors contributing to truancy behavior, the rate and extent of truancy and the strategies used to manage truancy. CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF TRUANCY, CAUSAL FACTORS AND APPROACHES USED IN THE MANAGEMENT AND REDUCTION OF TRUANCY Introduction According to Tyerman (1958:217), truancy has been a problem to all concerned with education since 1870s. Approximately 750 children were charged for truancy in England and Wales in 1954 (ibid: 220). This figure could have been an underestimation as it was based on learners who were referred to courts, and therefore represented mainly incorrigible truants (ibid). Furthermore, the figure gives a general picture of truanting children in one country only and without an indication whether it was absence from certain lessons or whole school day absence. Truancy is currently a problem in communities. In Clarks report concern was expressed about truancy among school children. Data presented in this report indicates that non-attendance exists, and has become an issue of increasing concern for schools, educational and student welfare organizations. Non-attendances viewed as being among one of the key problems facing some schools. There is increasing concern for the seemingly large number of ch ildren and young people, who are, for a range of reasons, missing out on the benefits of education and possibly on a better future (Dr. L. Galea, The Times 9th February, 2005). Non-attendance can be the beginning of countless problems for students who regularly miss out on school (Heyne, King, Tonge, Rollings, Pritchard Young,1999). The extent and nature of truancy are best understood in terms of whether it implies absence for the whole day or during a particular lesson. This chapter deals with how blanket and post-registration truancy manifest, the causal factors and various measures of reducing truancy in secondary schools. Blanket Truancy Perspectives in various countries England and Wales Normab (2001:49) states that 50,000 children play truant on a normal school day in England. The number of truants increases steadily with age and most truants are found at secondary school (ibid). This confirms past research findings about the existence of truancy in secondary school in some parts of England. Gray and Jesson (1990:25) gathered information on the incidence of truancy from the youth cohort survey of England and Wales. The result of their survey shows that 6% of final-year secondary school learners reported to have played truant for several days or weeks at a time. Malcolm, Wilson, Davidson and Kirk (2003:50) state as follows: ‘In 1999, the Audit Commission noted that at least 40,000 of the 400,000 learners absent from school are truanting. Scotland In a study done at 50 Scottish secondary schools, it was found that 30% to 33% of learners had been playing truant at least once in the survey week (Munn and Johnston, 1992:38). These schools were requested to provide both the overall attendance rate and the numbers of learners (ibid). Australia Haddon (1996:110), citing a comprehensive study conducted in Victorian secondary schools in Australia, states that 40% to 60% of learners of compulsory school age reported that they engaged in truancy. Cohen and Ryan (1998:12) state that about 10,000 learners in Tasmania play truant at least one day a week. The Netherlands The research done at 36 schools in four Dutch cities indicates that the average level of truancy at all schools was 4.4% (Bos, Ruiters and Visscher, 1992:393). The average percentage of allowed absence was 4.7%, therefore suggesting that learners in most schools are just as often absent with a valid reason as without one. United States of America It appears that truancy is a problem in American schools, although at varying levels. According to Black (1996:33), approximately 2,500 and 4,000 learners play truant on a daily basis in Pittsburg and Mulwaukee, repectively, while 300,000 of the 1.6 million students in Los Angeles are habitual truants. This shows that some learners stay absent without permission every day and that a day never goes by with a recording of 100% attendance. Truancy is so much of a concern that the Department of Education has prepared a manual that gives schools some guidelines on how to reduce it (United States Department of Education, 1996). Malta From January 2001 up to December 2002 there were 8,903 arraignments before local tribunals in connection with school absenteeism (Grech, 2002). This figure represents only the number of students who were absent from school without a valid reason on more than three occasions in the space of a month. It is a known fact that there are a number of pupils that systematically take three days off from school each month just for the sake that they use up their monthly absence allowance and knowing that in this way their parents would not receive a citation. Survey results issued by the National Statistics Office Malta on December 16, 2002 showed that overall absence rate from schools between September 25, 2000 and March 31, 20001, stood at 10.5 days per pupil. That included both absenteeism and authorized absence (such as those due to sickness). During this period, 657,604 pupil days were list to absenteeism, accounting for 8.9 per cent of the total pupil days. This reveals an increase of 5. 2 per cent over the 1999/2000 scholastic year. Absences in government schools stood at 19.12 days per pupil whereas that of government dependent (church schools) and independent private schools was 5.76 days per pupil. The rate of truancy in terms of gender Some of the overseas researchers state that there is no difference in the levels of truancy reported for males and females (Gray and Jesson, 1990:26; Haddon, 1996: 110; Smith, M., 1996:226; Stoll, 1994:36; Whitney, 1994: 59). Recent research on truancy in the seven local education authorities reports that the numbers of learners in secondary school admitting truancy was almost equal for boys and girls (Malcolm et al., 2003:31). Coldman (1995:68) also states that the variation that exists in truancy levels of males and females is slight. It is, therefore, apparent that some research are in agreement with regard to the truancy levels of male and females learners. Earlier research that was conducted in South Africa suggests that more males than females tend to play truant Coldman (1995:68) warns against making assumptions and generalisations about the existence of gender differnce in truancy levels. He argues that observed findings might result from the fact that some schools have more males than females, particularly when one is dealing with a large sample. What the above studies suggest about truancy levels of males and females is that the difference might be slight, if it does exist. Furthermore, observed diffrenences may be incfluenced by other variables, such as the enrolled number of male and female learners in a sample. Truancy rate according to the geographical location of the school Serious truancy is said to be more prevalent in inner-city secondary schools in England (Gray and Jesson, 1990:36; Stoll, 1990:23). Munn and Johnstone (1992:4) also found that the Scottish school with the highest percentage of unauthorized absence was all in the inner city. Coldman (1995:69) asserts that claims that truancy is a problem mainly experienced in inner city schools are disputable, since another survey showed that the truancy level is high even in the suburban, rural and industrial areas of England. It may therefore be purely speculation, without much supporting evidence, to suggest that inner-city school experience higher levels of truancy. Hard evidence needs to be gathered, where possible, in order to verify the claim that inner-city experience higher rates of truancy. According to some researchers, truancy levels also appear to differ from school to school, since they may be more prevalent in schools than in others (Blackm 1996:33; Bos et al., 1992:385; Gray and Jesson, 1990:26; OKeefe and Stoll, 1995:12). It is therefore apparent that the levels of truancy seem to vary from country to country, and in some cases, also in terms of geographical locations within a city or town. The literature indicates that blanket truancy is common in many secondary school and that, in some cases, learners play truant on a daily basis. The levels of blanket truancy can also vary according to regional locations within the same country. In the next section, the evidence regarding the level of post-registration truancy drawn from the literature will be discussed. Post-registration Truancy Very little information is given in the literature about national trends of post-registration truancy in countries where research on truancy was conducted. Most of the studies conducted in the United Kingdom, Australia, the United St

Extraordinary Potential of Man Revealed in Atlas Shrugged Essay

The Extraordinary Potential of Man Revealed in Atlas Shrugged  Ã‚   Freewill is the tenet on which men founded the United States of America, and the glory of "America the Beautiful" stems from the unlocked potential of its people. The callused hands of the laborers sip from the cup of American wealth, not the lazy plowman demanding government help. The inventor's mind synthesizes, theorizes, and designs the American dream, not the indifferent, insolent mechanic. The steel will of the industrialists propels the nation to greater heights, not the selfish arrogance of the beggar. The men who carry the weight of the world, Atlas and his proteges, do so by their incredible strength, not because of weakness, just as Ayn Rand asserts in her novel, Atlas Shrugged. Full of heroes and villains, Atlas Shrugged demands much from an intelligent reader. As global forces scheme to destroy various characters, Rand's continually acid wit and ironic tone set the stage for the various battles. One of the central characters in the novel, Hank Rearden, a steel magnate and tireless worker, invents a metal alloy that beats out all other steel alloys on the market. Naming it Rearden metal, Hank plans to storm the marketplace with his life's work, and make a bundle of money in the meantime. Dagny Taggart, a woman sharing with Rearden a vision of an America run by ingenuity, energy, and hard work, is the Vice-President in Charge of Operation for Taggart Transcontinental, a thriving railroad company. The two join forces, hoping to profit from their genius the old-fashioned way, by earning their fortune. Unfortunately, America refuses to allow these industrialists to follow their dreams. A creeping disease has infected the spirits of many A... ...l, purely logical absolutes leave no room for opposites to exist within them, and the defining characteristic of such absolutes are then lost. For example, absolute heat will not tolerate cold, yet how can we describe any heat without some reference to a colder temperature? By giving an example of Rearden's philosophy that works well despite the uncertainty of life, Rand reaches out to every man who has struggled for ideals. In reaching out to humanity through "Atlas Shrugged," Ayn Rand strengthened her argument about the basic goodness and extraordinary potential she believed all men could reach. Because this book takes incredible concentration to comprehend, understanding is left to individual effort, and Rand's permanent lesson for humanity is open to all seek her knowledge. Works Cited: Rand, Ayn. Atlas Shrugged. New York: Random House, Inc., 1957.

Organic vs. Sustainable Agriculture Essay -- Compare Contrast Agricult

Organic vs. Sustainable Agriculture Agriculture, to many is just an industry of farmers and cows. Most people can’t even come close to fathom just how essential the continuance of agriculture is to not just our well being, but our very lives. People of the United States have been spoiled, they’ve never had to worry about the grocery stores running empty because, even to this day, there hasn’t been a problem growing enough to feed, not only the U.S. but a good part of the world too. The day though is fast approaching that we won’t be able to keep those grocery stores stocked. Due to the depletion of the vital resources, needed to produce our food, it is becoming increasingly challenging for today’s agriculturalists to feed the world. The only way to be able to keep up with the exponentially growing population and shrinking resource base, is to radically change how we produce our food or we will be looking at a huge crisis in the very near future. From this, need of new farming and prod uction techniques, comes a couple new practices that will be discussed in this publication. One is sustainable, and the other is organic crop production. In the following, both practices will be discussed in detail hopefully clearing the air on which practice, in the long run should be the path production agriculture takes. Organic Agriculture, as defined by the National Organic Standards Board (NOSB): â€Å"Is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain, and enhance ecological harmony.† Which is very fancily put for agriculture with as little man made input as poss... ...perations future sustainability. Sources Brodt, S, Feenstra, G, Kozloff, R, Klonsky, K, Tourte, L. (2006). Farmer –community connections and the future of ecological agriculture in California. Agriculture and Human Values, 23,75-88. Fouche, C, Tourte, L, Gaskell, M, Smith, R, Koike, S, T. Mitchell, J. (2006) Organic Certification, Farm Planning, Management, and Marketing. Publication #7247, 1-6 Earles, R, Williams, P. (2005) Sustainable Agriculture: An introduction. Retrieved October 22, 2006, from http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/sustagintro.pdf Gegner, L, Kueper, G. (2004) Organic Crop Production Overview. Retrieved October 22, 2006, from http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/organiccrop.pdf Pimentel, D. (2005) Environmental, energetic, and economic comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems. Bioscience, v. 55, no. 7, 573-579

Hamlet (Shakespeare): “Mad,” “Sane,” or “None of the Above”? Essay

A form of theatrical representation, metadrama (Danner), revealed Hamlet’s convictions about the behaviors and character of his mother, father, step-father, and, most importantly, himself (Shakespeare).   Metadramatic techniques reveal to the audience that characters in a play themselves are aware they are in a play and are providing additional information that the audience can accept as truthful (Danner). While these characters have no motivation to be deceitful, they may demonstrate to the audience their ability to deceive themselves.   Most notably, in Hamlet, the audience can accept information in particular soliloquies, the play-within-a-play, and from the ghost of Hamlet’s father as accurate representations of Hamlet’s and even the ghost’s own perceptions.   Why would any self-respecting ghost return to earth other than to reveal the truth?   And why would Hamlet choose to lie to us through a soliloquy? However, most importantly, we have an opportunity to witness Hamlet’s own unintentional self-deceptions.   In using examples of these techniques to evaluate Hamlet’s mental condition, â€Å"sanity† was not conceptualized as a categorical variable with two levels, â€Å"sane† or â€Å"mad.† Creating â€Å"madness† in a fictional character in a literary masterpiece (e.g., Ophelia in Hamlet) does not impose the difficulties encountered when trying to differentiate between those who are legally â€Å"mad† vs. â€Å"bad† (Emery & Oltmanns 429-433) or when trying to form two discrete diagnostic categories (Emery & Oltmanns 3-14). Regarding the question of whether Hamlet was â€Å"mad† or â€Å"sane,† in the analysis presented below, he has been conceptualized as unfortunate in having characteristics that did not match the particular demands needed for the unusual circumstances of his life and also in having the facility for self-deception that prevented him from recognizing the futility of nonetheless persevering. At the beginning of the play, Hamlet was a young man grieving following the death of the father he apparently still had worshipped as young boys not infrequently do, until they learn what is and isn’t â€Å"cool†.   Hamlet, of course, seemingly for worse rather than for better, actually had that all-powerful father, strong, courageous, respected and also loved by all.   Not prepared for his father’s death, Hamlet was even less prepared for his mother’s fast re-marriage to her brother-in-law. Magnificent poetry is no less magnificent if it comes from the mouth of someone too inexperienced to have learned the difference between the kinds of painful events that characterize human existence and those that will always get our own or most anyone’s attention, for example, the difference between our recently widowed mother having sex with the village idiot and her being sent to Hitler’s gas chambers.   The intensity and obsessive nature of his suicidal depression alone would have permitted a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; American Psychiatric Association manual, as cited in Emery & Oltmanns):   â€Å"O, that this too too solid flesh would Melt{,} and resolve itself into a dew!   Or that he Everlasting had not fix’d His cannon ‘gainst self-slaughter!   O God! God! How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable, Seem to me all the uses of this world!† (Hamlet 10). Interestingly, more than two centuries before Freud’s birth, Shakespeare had dramatized the kind of observation on which the latter based psychoanalytic theory (as cited in Shaffer).   First, in the soliloquy cited above, Hamlet did not yet even know that the cause of his father’s death was homicide and would not himself have recognized that his suicidal depression was caused not by his father’s death but by his mother’s sexual betrayal (in Hamlet’s view) of his father, when she went with â€Å"most wicked speed, to post With such dexterity to incestuous sheets!† (10). Without apology for violating one of the many dictates of the politically correct (PC), the dictate never to mention the name â€Å"Freud† without including the phrase â€Å"sexist† (Bowers & Farvolden), it does not even seem possible to avoid imagining Dr. Freud, while rubbing his whiskers thoughtfully, concluding that while Hamlet had resolved his fear of paternal retribution for his Oedipal desires by closely identifying with his father, his resolution of the Oedipal stage was incomplete because, regarding his mother, in wording compatible with Hamlet’s revered Bible, he still was â€Å"lusting in his heart† and, rather than blame his mother as an individual, he instead (innocently and blissfully untroubled today’s PC) blamed women’s nature, â€Å"Frailty, thy name is woman!† (10). His ambiguous view of his mother was perhaps not unlike children who blame their mothers for all that is wrong with their lives and the world, yet for whom the phrase â€Å"your mother,† in themselves, are fighting words.   To reinforce the doubts he already had about Gertrude (noted above), Shakespeare gave him the ghost of his father who simultaneously condemned and forgave her, in effect setting her up as a target for both justifiable rage and self-restraint: Claudius â€Å"won to his shameful lust The will of my most seeming-virtuous queen† (20) and Hamlet should â€Å"Let not the royal bed of Denmark be A couch for luxury and damned incest.   But, however, thou pursuest this act, Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contrive Against thy mother†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (21).   The ghost of Hamlet’s father encouraged what already was his simmering attribution of blame, not overly concerned about the fairness of Gertrude sharing Claudius’ guilt.   In fact, we know that people distort their own perceptions and memories in a direction consistent with their beliefs (Schacter), explaining how Hamlet managed to interpret the ghost’s condemnation of Gertrude as strong enough to warrant his own conclusion, â€Å"O most pernicious woman!† (22). Indeed, people who have suffered misfortune frequently do seek out other people to blame.   We do not like to believe we are at the mercy of random inexplicable accidents or that there is no meaning to account for the occurrence of adverse events or that we do not have immortal souls.   Thus, while Claudius most certainly was guilty of committing â€Å"murder most foul† (20), what did Gertrude actually do to warrant her son’s animosity?   When does she ever show us the loathsome side of herself we have come to expect? Regarding her husband, she, in fact, does not seem guilty of anything more than being naively trusting, when as a recent and lonely widow, she was human in being receptive to the sexual overtures of a man she believed shared her own grief.   Despite what her son and her husband’s ghost indignantly protested, for centuries, marriage between even blood relatives might be considered a national European sport (Coontz). Regarding Hamlet, her â€Å"crimes† seemed no more than being overly tolerant of his disrespectful treatment and overly supportive to the extent of being his cheerleader in what she failed to recognize was not a game but a lethal battle with Laertes: â€Å"He’s fat, and scant of breath.   Here Hamlet, take my napkin, rub thy brows; the queen carouses to thy fortune† (Hamlet, 99).   In her exuberance, she drank poison from the cup her husband had prepared for Hamlet. It would seem that Hamlet’s fatal flaw was less his inability to exact revenge from Claudius than his facility at finding and deceiving himself into believing about any possible excuse, thus preventing him from accept himself for not being the â€Å"man of action† expected of the son of a great king.   Under other circumstances, differing from his father regarding physical accomplishments might have led to no more than the timeless struggle between, for example, the father who had been star quarterback in high school and the son who was in his father’s eyes the star high-school nerd. It was Hamlet’s incredible myopia regarding the excuses he was making for failing to act that led inexorably to a tragic bloodbath in the end.   Hamlet, it turned out, like J. Alfred Prufrock, was â€Å"not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant to be† (Eliot line 111).   Had Hamlet a chance to â€Å"grow old† (line 120), he might have recognized his own nature in time to avoid becoming â€Å"an attendant lord†¦deferential, glad to be of use† (lines 112, 115). However, he too had â€Å"wept and prayed† (line 81) and rather than finding â€Å"the strength and courage to force the moment to a crisis† (line 80), he found only excuses for failing to act.   Indeed, Hamlet seemed to sincerely believe he would have been able to end his torment through suicide had his religion not prohibited â€Å"self-slaughter† (Hamlet, 10). These excuses included an odd need for evidence that the ghost was truthful (53), failing to act after the play-within-a-play elicited the demonstration of guilt Hamlet sought from Claudius (surprisingly, since the sociopath of Hamlet’s description would not be likely to even feel guilt – and after a stunningly convincing description of his own conscience, why did Claudius not remember this conscience after again Hamlet failed to kill him?) because of his mistaken perception of Claudius being in the act of prayer.   Ironically, as Claudius was acknowledging that his â€Å"offense is rank it smells to heaven; It hath the primal eldest curse upon’t, A brother’s murder. Pray can I not† (64), Hamlet, echoing the ghost of his father at the beginning of the play, could not kill Claudius because if killed while in prayer, â€Å"he goes to heaven †¦Ã‚   this is †¦ not revenge† (65).   At this point, he failed even to question the justice of a religion that rewards a minute of remorse with heaven and punishes anyone unfortunate enough to die suddenly with hell.   Hamlet never did describe what his father might have done so that he was â€Å"cut off even in the blossom of my sins† (21). Was Hamlet â€Å"mad†?   He was not mad unless the label is consistently used to describe anyone demonstrating self-destructive patterns of thought.   For that matter, if we describe Hamlet as â€Å"mad,† there would be no reason for excluding the millions of people who fit, to varying degrees, even one diagnostic description in the American Psychiatric Association manual (as cited in Emery & Oltmanns). Is Hamlet â€Å"sane†?   The label again would fit only if it also were used to describe virtually all of us who demonstrate any of the subjective feelings of distress described in the same manual.   The text of Hamlet did not even provide enough information to form a reliable conclusion about his thoughts and behaviors prior to his father’s death.   He might have been feeling distressed his entire life because of experiences such as the death of his pet flea or a stubbed toe. The genuine tragedy of Hamlet was that the eloquence and stunningly brutal clarity with which he expressed the universal human condition in his most famous soliloquy did not prevent his doom and, indeed, might have been so brilliant that he would have been blinded had he not turned away: a condition where the only escape from â€Å"the whips and scorns of time† is into the potentially worse â€Å"undiscover’d country †¦ [that] makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of† (48). Works Cited Bowers, Kenneth, & Farvolden, Peter.   â€Å"Revisiting a Century-old Freudian Slip – From   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Suggestion Disavowed to the Truth Repressed.† Psychological Bulletin, 119   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1996): 355-380. Coontz, S.   Marriage, a History: From Obedience to Intimacy or How Love Conquered   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marriage.   New York: Viking, 2005. Danner, Bruce.   â€Å"Speaking Daggers.† Shakespeare Quarterly, 54 (2003): 29-62. Eliot, T.S. The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.   Retrieved 17 May 2009, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   www.bartleby.com/1981.html. Emery, Robert E., & Oltmanns, Thomas F. Essentials of Abnormal Psychology.   Upper

Baker v. Osborne Legal Review

Thomas Baker and others bought new homes from Osborne Development Corp. The new homeowners later filed a complaint against Osborne Development Corp. for multiple construction defects in the houses they purchased. The complaint alleged causes of action for strict liability, and other breaches of contract, and negligence. Baker and the other homeowners had along with the home purchases signed a builder application form containing the following language: â€Å"CONSENT TO THE TERMS OF THESE DOCUMENTS INCLUDING THE BINDING ARBITRATION PROVISION contained therein.† By signing the application, the homeowners were presumed to have â€Å"agreed to the terms of the warranty. † (Baker v. Osborne Development Corp. , 2008). The question posed is whether the new homeowners are bound by the arbitration agreement they signed, or whether they could just sue Osborne Development Corp. in court. The Fourth Appellate District of the California Court of Appeal answered both questions in its 2008 decision when it held that arbitration provisions in the HBW 2-10 warranty were â€Å"unenforceable,† because they were â€Å"unconscionable.† The warranty was unconscionable because the arbitration language was broad and did not â€Å"clearly and unmistakably† reserve the sole authority to decide whether the arbitration provision was enforceable to the arbitrator. The arbitration provision was procedurally unconscionable because it was hidden in a booklet not available when Baker executed the warranty application. It was substantively unconscionable because it was solely intended to benefit Osborne, as Osborne would have no reason to sue Baker after the close of escrow. In NCR Corp. v. Korala Associates, Ltd., (2008), the court of Appeals weighed the issue by determining the scope of the arbitration agreement based on the reason that a party should not be compelled to arbitrate a dispute which it has not agreed to arbitrate. To determine whether or not a c ase is arbitrable, the Sixth Circuit looked at the allegations in each count of the complaint to determine whether the agreement was a necessary part of each claim. The standard used by the Sixth Circuit was this; whether â€Å"an action could be maintained without reference to the contract or relationship issue† (NCR Corp.v. Korala Associates, Ltd. , 2008, p. 4). If it could, then it is likely to be outside the scope of the arbitration agreement. Going by the Court decisions in Baker and NCR, the homeowners are not bound by the arbitration clause, and are therefore free to pursue damages in a court of law. References Baker v. Osborne Development Corp. (2008) 159 Cal. App. 4th 884 [– Cal. Rptr. 3d –] NCR Corp. v. Korala Associates, Ltd. , No. 06-3685, 2008 WL 140978 (6th Cir. Jan. 16, 2008)